How Your Brain Understands What Your Ear Hears by National Institutes of Health, - HTML preview

as the general public. It features:

World Abuzz

American Sign Language: Quick Facts

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/education/

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/asl.asp

news/swatz.asp

Cochlear Implants

Ten Ways to Recognize Hearing Loss (bookmark

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/coch.asp

quiz)

English http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

Gen “Y” Asks Why Not?

hearing/10ways.asp

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/education/

Spanish http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

news/patterson.asp

Spanish/10w_sp.asp

Has Your Baby’s Hearing Been Screened?

Travel Inside the Ear (video clip)

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/education/video/

screened.asp

travel_vid.asp

How Loud Is Too Loud? (bookmark)

What Are the Communication Considerations for

English http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/

Parents of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children?

ruler.asp

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/

Spanish http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/Spanish/

commopt.asp

ruler_sp.asp

What Is Sound? (video clip)

How Loud Is Too Loud? (interactive sound ruler)

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/education/video/

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/education/decibel/

sound_vid.asp

decibel.asp

How Loud Is Too Loud? (video clip)

Eisenhower National Clearinghouse

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/education/video/

http://www.enc.org/

loud_vid.asp

ENC’s mission is to identify effective curricu-

Silence Isn’t Always Golden

lum resources, create high-quality profes-

English http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/

sional development materials, and

silence.asp

disseminate useful information and products

Spanish http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/Spanish/

to improve K–12 mathematics and science

silence_span.asp

teaching and learning.

Vietnamese http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

hearing/VietSilence.pdf

139

How Your Brain Understands What Your Ear Hears

• Science links:

cation through the use of technology.) You

http://www.enc.org/weblinks/science/

can click on the following sections:

• Sound links:

• How We Perceive Sound: The Ear

http://www.enc.org/weblinks/sci-

• The Timeline

ence/0,1578,1%2DSound,00.shtm

• The Physics of Sound

• The Interactive Sound Lab

League for the Hard of Hearing Noise Center

• Applications of Sound

http://www.lhh.org/noise/index.htm

WISE EARS! National Campaign Web Site

Contains fact sheets and other information

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/wise/index.asp

resources on noise, from the League for the

Hard of Hearing, a nonprofit organization

A national campaign sponsored by the

whose mission is to improve the quality of life

National Institute on Deafness and Other

for infants, children, and adults with all

Communication Disorders and the National

degrees of hearing loss.

Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. It

includes links to about 90 member organiza-

The Soundry

tions and information about the prevention of

http://library.thinkquest.org/19537/

noise-induced hearing loss.

An interactive, educational site about sound.

Have WISE EARS! for Life

It was developed by students as part of a

English http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/

ThinkQuest science competition.

wiseears.asp

(ThinkQuest Inc. is a nonprofit organization

Spanish http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/Spanish/

that offers programs designed to advance edu-

wiseears_span.asp

140

Appendix I

More About the National

out the National

Institutes of Health

Begun as a one-room Laboratory of Hygiene in

research and training in more than 2,000

1887, the National Institutes of Health today is

research institutions throughout the United

one of the world’s foremost medical research cen-

States and abroad. In fact, NIH grantees are

ters and the federal focal point for medical

located in every state in the country. These

research in the United States.

grants and contracts make up the NIH Extra-

mural Research Program.

What Is the NIH Mission

Approximately 10 percent of the budget goes to

and Organization?

NIH’s Intramural Research Programs, the more

The NIH mission is to uncover new knowledge

than 2,000 projects conducted mainly in its own

that will lead to better health for everyone. NIH

laboratories.

works toward that mission by

• conducting research in its own laboratories;

The Intramural Research Programs are central to

• supporting the research of nonfederal scientists

the NIH scientific effort. First-rate intramural sci-

in universities, medical schools, hospitals, and

entists collaborate with one another regardless of

research institutions throughout the country

institute affiliation or scientific discipline and

and abroad;

have the intellectual freedom to pursue their

• helping in the training of research investigators;

research leads in NIH’s own laboratories. These

and

explorations range from basic biology, to behav-

• fostering communication of medical information.

ioral research, to studies on treatment of major

NIH is one of eight health agencies of the Public

diseases. NIH scientists conduct their research in

Health Service, which, in turn, is part of the U.S.

laboratories located on the NIH campus in

Department of Health and Human Services. NIH’s

Bethesda and in several field units across the

institutes and centers encompass 75 buildings on

country and abroad.

more than 300 acres in Bethesda, Md. The NIH

budget has frown from about $300 in 1887 to

NIH Research Grants

more than $23.5 billion in 2002.

Final decisions about funding extramural research

are made at NIH headquarters. But long before

What Is the Goal of NIH Research?

this happens, the process begins with an idea that

Simply described, the goal of NIH research is to

an individual scientist describes in a written appli-

acquire new knowledge to help prevent, detect,

cation for a research grant.

diagnose, and treat disease and disability, from the

rarest genetic disorder to the common cold.

The project might be small, or it might involve

millions of dollars. The project might become use-

How Does NIH Help

ful immediately as a diagnostic test or new treat-

Scientists Reach This Goal?

ment, or it might involve studies of basic

Approximately 82 percent of the investment is

biological processes whose practical value may

made through grants and contracts supporting

not be apparent for many years.

141

How Your Brain Understands What Your Ear Hears

Peer Review

Five Nobelists made their prize-winning discover-

Each research grant application undergoes a peer-

ies in NIH laboratories. You can learn more about

review process.

Nobelists who have received NIH support at

http://www.nih.gov/about/almanac/nobel/index.htm.

A panel of scientific experts, primarily from out-

side the government, who are active and produc-

What Impact Has NIH Had

tive researchers in the biomedical sciences, first

on the Health of the Nation?

evaluates the scientific merit of the application.

NIH research has played a major role in making

Then, a national advisory council or board, com-

possible the following achievements of the last

posed of eminent scientists as well as public mem-

few decades:

bers who are interested in health issues or the

• Mortality from heart disease, the number one

biomedical sciences, determines the project’s

killer in the United States, dropped by 36 per-

overall merit and priority in advancing the

cent between 1977 and 1999.

research agenda of the particular NIH funding

• Death rates from stroke decreased by 50 percent

institute.

during the same period.

• Improved treatments and detection methods

Altogether, about 38,500 research and training

increased the relative five-year survival rate for

applications are reviewed annually through the

people with cancer to 60 percent.

NIH peer-review system. At any given time, NIH

• Paralysis from spinal cord injury is significantly supports 35,000 grants in universities, medical

reduced by rapid treatment with high doses of a

schools, and other research and research training

steroid. Treatment given within the first eight

institutions both nationally and internationally.

hours after injury increases the likelihood of

recovery in severely injured patients who have

Who Are the Scientists NIH Supports?

lost sensation or mobility below the point of

Scientific progress depends mainly on the scien-

injury.

tist. About 50,000 principal investigators—work-

• Long-term treatment with anticlotting medi-

ing in every state and in several foreign countries,

cines cuts stroke risk by 80 percent from a com-

from every specialty in medicine, every medical

mon heart condition known as atrial fibrillation.

discipline, and at every major university and

• In schizophrenia, where patients suffer fright-

medical school—receive NIH extramural funding

ening delusions and hallucinations, new med-

to explore unknown areas of medical science.

ications can reduce or eliminate these

Supporting and conducting NIH’s extramural and

symptoms in 80 percent of patients.

intramural programs are about 15,600 employees,

• Chances for survival increased for infants with

more than 4,000 of whom hold professional or

respiratory distress syndrome, an immaturity

research doctorate degrees. The NIH staff includes

of the lungs, due to development of a substance

intramural scientists, physicians, dentists, veteri-

to prevent the lungs from collapsing. In general,

narians, nurses, and laboratory, administrative,

life expectancy for a baby born today is almost

and support personnel, plus an ever-changing

three decades longer than one born at the begin-

array of research scientists in training.

ning of the century.

• With effective medications and psychotherapy,

The NIH Nobelists

the 19 million Americans who suffer from

The roster of those who have conducted NIH

depression can now look forward to a better,

research or who have received NIH support over

more productive future.

the years includes the world’s most illustrious sci-

• Vaccines protect against infectious diseases that entists and physicians. Among them are 97 scien-once killed and disabled millions of children

tists who have won Nobel Prizes for achievements

and adults.

as diverse as deciphering the genetic code and

• Dental sealants have proved 100 percent effec-

identifying the causes of hepatitis.

tive in protecting the chewing surfaces of chil-

142

dren’s molars and premolars, where most cavi-

kidney diseases, Alzheimer’s disease, communi-

ties occur.

cation disorders, mental illness, drug abuse and

• In 1990, NIH researchers performed the first

alcoholism, and AIDS, and other unconquered

trial of gene therapy in humans. Scientists are

diseases.

increasingly able to locate, identify, and describe

• Ways to continue improving the health of

the functions of many of the genes in the human

infants and children, women, and minorities.

genome. The ultimate goal is to develop screen-

• Better ways to understand the aging process and

ing tools and gene therapies for cancer and

behavior and lifestyle practices that affect

many other diseases.

health.

NIH Research in the 21st Century

These are some of the areas where NIH’s invest-

NIH has enabled scientists to learn much since its

ment in health research promises to yield the

humble beginnings. But many discoveries remain

greatest good for the greatest number of people.

to be made:

• Better ways to prevent and treat cancer, heart

For more about NIH, visit its Web site at http://

disease, stroke, blindness, arthritis, diabetes,

www.nih.gov.

143

Appendix I

Appendix II

More about the NIDCD

and Its Research

In 1988, Congress established the National Insti-

What Are Some of the Problems the

tute on Deafness and Other Communication Dis-

NIDCD Addresses?

orders as a separate Institute within the National

In this information age, communication and tech-

Institutes of Health (NIH). Commonly referred to

nology skills will be central to a successful life for

as the NIDCD, this Institute supports and con-

all Americans. The labor force of the 21st century

ducts research and research training on normal

will require intense use of these skills. However,

mechanisms as well as diseases and disorders of

for the one in six Americans who has communi-

hearing, balance, smell, taste, voice, speech, and

cation disabilities, as well as their families who

language. These processes of sensing and inter-

support them, each day can be a challenge. The

preting are fundamental to the way individuals

simple acts of speaking, listening, and making

perceive the world around them and to their abil-

wants and needs understood are often impossible.

ity to communicate effectively with others.

The days are often very challenging

• for the individual who has dizziness (vertigo);

In the past few years, NIDCD-supported scientists

• for people who find themselves suddenly unable

have made remarkable progress in research on

to hear;

human communication and its disorders. This

• for the person who cannot speak without stut-

progress has been further accelerated by research

tering, or who is unable to express ideas clearly

supported by other institutes at NIH and is now

after a stroke;

providing the foundation for current and future

• for the adult who cannot use his or her voice to

research to achieve an important goal: to help

talk with a friend on the phone due to throat

individuals with communication and sensory-sys-

cancer;

tem disorders.

• for the child with autism or the young deaf child

who struggles with language and speech;

The NIDCD has developed a strategic plan to

• for the individual whose ringing in the ear (tin-

draw attention to extraordinary research opportu-

nitus) is overwhelming;

nities and compelling needs in the area of com-

• for an older person with a loss of balance that

munication and sensory disorders. While this

results in falls and fractured bones; and

plan assists the NIDCD in focusing on specific

• for an older person whose loss of hearing results

areas of research, it is not intended to be an

in isolation and depression, or whose dimin-

all-encompassing master plan for funding. The

ished sense of taste or smell affects nutrition and

NIDCD’s first priority continues to be the funding

poses a danger.

of high-quality research conceived and initiated

by members of the research community that will

Communication disorders have a major impact on

help achieve the goals and objectives of the

education, employment, and the well being of

NIDCD.

Americans.

145

How Your Brain Understands What Your Ear Hears

A Few Vital Statistics

day life. For example, a substantial fraction of

Birth and Early Childhood

older adults loses the ability to detect the foul-

• More than 12,000 babies are born each year

smelling agent that is added to natural gas to

with a significant hearing loss, which can affect

warn of a potential leak.

speech and language development.

• Two-thirds of children with acquired deafness

What Progress Has Been Made?

also have some loss of balance.

What We Know

• About 8 percent of American school-age chil-

Past research has produced many significant dis-

dren have problems developing and using lan-

coveries and technologies that improve our ability

guage. These language difficulties underlie not

to identify and treat people with communication

only speaking problems but also the ability to

problems. Because of research advances,

read and write.

• Vaccines now prevent many illnesses from

• Middle ear infection (otitis media) is the most

occurring, such as measles, mumps, meningitis,

frequently cited reason that a sick child visits a

and rubella, which were once major causes of

physician. In the United States, the estimated

hearing loss.

cost of otitis media each year is $5 billion in

• Much more is known about inherited (genetic)

medical bills and lost wages. Children with oti-

forms of hearing loss.

tis media suffer hearing loss during infection

• Much more is known about how exposure to

and often for an extended period of time after

noise and toxins can damage hearing.

treatment is initiated.

People with communication problems now have

• An estimated 2 million Americans stutter. Ten

access to a wealth of new tools to improve com-

percent of children entering the first grade have

munication, including cochlear (inner ear)

moderate to severe speech disorders, including

implants, better hearing aids, electronic larynxes

missing and substituted speech sounds and stut-

(voice boxes), and computerized speech devices.

tering.

• We can now identify newborn babies with hear-

ing loss and toddlers with language problems at

Adulthood

a much earlier age than in the past.

• Nearly 1 million American adults have a lan-

guage disorder due to stroke or other brain

What We Don’t Know

injury.

But research findings also teach us how much

• An estimated 2 million adults with progressive

more there is to know. For example, we need to

dementia (for example, Alzheimer’s) experience

learn

significant language impairment.

• how to best help newborn children with hearing

• Tens of thousands of Americans each year

loss;

develop cancer of the head and neck. Conven-

• which new devices or treatments are most ben-

tional cancer treatment usually damages organs

eficial for certain individuals and why a treat-

critical for human speech and swallowing.

ment works well for some people but not for

• Balance disorders may contribute to as many as

others; and

half of all falls experienced by older people and

• how new tools for diagnosis, such as brain-

cost the nation more than $8 billion per year in

imaging methods, can also help doctors choose

patient care. For individuals over age 75, bal-

the best treatment for people with communica-

ance disorders are the single most common

tion problems of varying causes.

symptom presented to primary-care physicians.

• More than 2 million adults have disorders of

To achieve the greatest benefit from finite research

taste and smell. These problems are more preva-

dollars, the NIDCD considers the effects that com-

lent in older people and affect a person’s every-

munication disorders have on the American

146

people as well as areas that offer the greatest

genes may one day allow us to diagnose and clas-

opportunity for significant progress at this time.

sify patients with communication disorders based

After weighing these factors with scientists and