At about 500 B.C. the cultural leadership of the Middle East became a thing of the past, but the dominance of Europe still lay far in the future, so that for the next 2,000 years the four major civilized areas of the world - the Middle East, Aegean and Italy, Indus and Ganges valleys of India and China - all pursued their separate ways, often affected by what transpired beyond their frontiers, sometimes borrowing cultural elements from Qne another and repeatedly afflicted by nomad attacks. Yet each developed according to an inner logic and momentum of its own. (Ref. 139)
Back to Africa: 600 to 501 B.C.
Perhaps as early as this century the art of iron smelting was imported into Sudan from Egypt via Kush, which had become an immensely rich country. The early inhabitants of Axum on the Ethiopian plateau south of Kush were probably of mixed Asian and Negro origin, and they were joined about 500 B.C. by settlers from southern Arabia, some of whom were apparently Jews. An Ethiopian-Jewish community, as well as a later Christian one, has existed in Ethiopia[52] up to the present time. From those contacts arose the legend that the Queen of Sheba bore a son by Solomon, who became emperor of Ethiopia and founded the Solomaic Dynasty. (The Queen of Sheba, of course, lived in the 10th century B.C.)
Egypt continued to be ruled by the Persians, with no advance in their own civilization except that their economic isolation was eliminated and they did complete the Nile-Red Sea canal which had been begun by Necho. Apparently the original Egyptian cotton was a poor product and linen from flax dominated Egyptian clothing. (Ref. 213) The Egyptian science of previous centuries began to be picked up by Greeks who had colonies at Naucrates on the Nile delta, with others along the coast towards Libya. All of this was further developed in the subsequent Hellenic Culture. (Ref. 136, 28, 175, 83)
In addition to the Greek settlements along the Libyan coast there were Phoenician colonies all along the western half of the North African shore from Leptis (east of Carthage) to the Pillars of Hercules. Carthage was rapidly developing an empire of its own, controlling the old Tartessus area of Spain by 480 B.C. and later gaining all of the western half of the African Mediterranean shore line. It was mentioned in the last chapter that at the end of that century Hanno, of Carthage, had established a large colony down the Atlantic coast of Africa. Other writers have dated this colony, some 2,600 miles down the Atlantic, at 490 B.C., but in any event, archeologists have shown that Hanno was not the first, as there were already ruins of a large megalithic city of Lixus, far south of Gibralter, just where the ocean current sweeps past to go directly to the Gulf of Mexico. The Romans later called this ancient city the "Eternal City" or by a still older name, "Sun City", as it was apparently built by sun-worshippers who included astronomers, architects, masons, scribes and expert potters. The Sumerians, Assyrians, Hittites, Phoenicians, Egyptians and the Lixus people were all fanatic sun-worshippers, just as were the Olmecs and the Mochica in Mexico and Peru, respectively. The Carthaginian Himilco also continued his trips up to the northern shores of Europe to obtain tin for bronze . In his effort to find the ultimate source of that metal, and avoid the Celtic middle men of France, Himilco finally found the channel islands and then the coast of Britain, either at Cornwall or Devon, eventually to discover the tin mines of Cornwall. (Ref. 28, 136, 95, 66) The Carthaginian position in the Mediterranean was weakened in 480 B.C. when a large Carthaginian force suffered an humiliating defeat at the hands of Greek Syracusans in northern Sicily. Carthage then seemed to also lose its former Etruscan ally, the city-state of Caere. Perhaps this occurred because Caere had tried to establish a colony on the Atlantic island of Madeira as a means of interrupting the Carthaginian merchant marine's monopoly of the tin supply from Gaul and Cornwall. (Ref. 75)
In addition to the civilized centers of Egypt, Kush and Carthage, the 4th century center of Cyrene, in present day east Libya, must be mentioned. This was a Greek city, settled in the previous- century but which now dominated an entire community area which was prosperous and cultured. (Ref. 83)
The climate continued to deteriorate in the Sahara and life in the Akan jeir Culture of the Tichit Valley of southern Mauretania was becoming progressively more difficult. In this century the areas of Ghana and Kanem began development, probably with the help of Berbers from the north, and with the economic foundation of the export of gold and slaves. Excavations south of Lake Chad give evidence of people, stone and bone implements and cattle-raising at the beginning of this century. (Ref. 83) In Nigeria an iron industry developed on the Jos Plateau, and sculptured heads and figurines in terracotta dating to 500 B.C. have been found near Nok, in that country. About the same time, the Negroes, starting northwest of the rain forests, migrated down through the forest along the great rivers to the central part of the southern savannas and then spread out in all directions to the eastern part of the continent and toward the south. They spoke the Bantu language, which is the ancestor of most African languages today. These men took knowledge of mining and iron with them. (Ref. 45, 8, 175) Hottentots and Bushmen still lived in the far south.
Back to The Near East: 600 to 501 B.C.
Between the Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead Sea on the trade route between south Arabia and Syria the Nabataean Kingdom developed with a capital at Petra. Because of its location it was influenced by the Aramaic (Syrian) civilization and still later by the Greeks. The Nabataeans migrated up from the south to settle in this cliff area, levying tolls on all caravan goods passing through. Petra had a theatre, thermal baths, palaces and a system of canals for water. This once thriving city, about ninety miles southwest of present day Amman, Jordan, was buried for centuries and only recently excavated by the Swiss Burckhardt. Qataban and Hadramaut were two new kingdoms which appeared on the south coast of Arabia. (Ref. 136, 176)
Many Phoenician ports which were constructed at this period of low sea levels are today below the water line. Both Phoenicia and Judea remained under Persian rule, but their separate reactions differed. While Phoenicia faded away as a country, living in the future only in its colony of Carthage, the Jews strove to keep their national identity.
The priest, Ezra, called the Jews together and they read and adopted the Book of the Law of Moses, which was probably the first five books of the Bible, the "Torah' or the "Pentateuch". Those stories were drawn from a storehouse of Mesopotamian legend as old as 3,000 including the legends of Paradise, the Flood, etc. Nehemiah rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem (445 - 433 B.C.) and enforced the observance of the law. (Ref. 224, 46)
This entire area was a part of the Persian Empire, but there was a revival of Damascus as a cultural center. At the end of the century Darius II died (405 B.C.) and his son Artaxerxes II became emperor while a brother, Cyrus the younger, became Iranian viceroy in the west. The latter recruited a force of ten thousand Greek mercenaries and marched them across Asia Minor into Syria and Mesopotamia to revolt against his brother. in a great battle at Cunaxa in 401 the Greek troops defeated the Persians, but Cyrus was killed and the mercenaries retreated with some difficulties back to the shore of the Black Sea and then home. The Greek's victory, however, gave them renewed confidence and helped set the stage for Alexander 's later Asiatic invasions. At that time many Jews still lived in Babylonia and some in the Persian controlled city of Ur.
NOTE: Insert Map from Reference 97. 24. THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND
401-399 B.C.
As the century opened Darius I was continuing his conquests into-a part of northern Greece, being finally stopped at the famous battle of Marathon. The Persian Empire now included thirty satrapies (provinces) each ruled by a satrap appointed by the king. In each, also, was a general and a financial officer responsible only to the king. These territories included Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Phoenicia, Lydia, Phrygia, Ionia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Armenia, Assyria, the Caucasus, Babylonia, Media, Persia proper, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, India west of the Indus, Bactria and other regions of several central Asiatic tribes. The official language was Old Persian, closely related to Sanscrit, and written in cuneiform. The more generally used lingua franca of the empire, however, was Aramaic, written in alphabetic form. The Persian conquests were made possible by mounted bowmen and Bactrian camels. The latter made the long lances of the Scythians and other enemy tribes ineffective. (Ref. 28, 213)
That Darius was a true "Grand Monarch" is evident from the story that a thousand animals were slaughtered each day for the royal table in Persopolis[53]. Upon the death of Darius in 485 B.C. his son, Xerxes I, inherited the great empire. He was a sensual man and with him the "mob of nations", contaminated with drunkenness and immorality, began to fall apart. Xerxes dispersed the Babylonian priesthood and destroyed their temple of Marduk, but when he made another attempt to take the remainder of Greece his troops were turned back at Thermophylae and his fleet was defeated at the naval battle of Salamis[54]. Still lesser kings followed - Artaxerxes I and Darius II, etc. The later Achaemenid kings demonstrated great brutality, in spite of their Zorastrian religion.
The metal workers of the Achaemenid dynasty period have left numerous small objects of art made of gold and silver. The use of animal shapes was common and the lion, symbolizing royalty and power, and the bull, symbolizing strength, vitality and loyalty being two of the more popular. Later Christian iconography used the same symbols for two of the evangelists - Mark being represented by the lion and the physician, Luke, by the bull. The Iranian artists had the ability to develop light reflection which is said to be a characteristic of the light on the landscape of the Iranian plateau itself. (Ref. 197) Additional Notes
In the early century this entire area also was merely a part of the Persian Empire, but in the far eastern portion the Armenians retained some measure of autonomy. In 499 B.C. Ionian cities along the coast, led by Aristogoras, revolted against Persia. This so-called "Ionian Revolt" was helped by ships from Athens and Eretria and they succeeded in burning the old Lydian capital of Sardis. Within five years, however, the revolt was crushed, and it was mid-century before the Greeks could again control the coastal cities. (Ref. 28, 88)
Xerxes did not devastate the land as his armies traveled, but he had agents gather food supplies from his own territories and deliver them to stations along the intended route. Once in Greece, however, he eventually had to withdraw because there was no way he could feed his entire army over the winter. He had exceeded the practical limit of imperial expansion. In this and the next few centuries Iranian warriors bred a large, powerful horse capable of carrying a fully armored man and the horses, too, were protected by metal. Although this heavy cavalry was slower than that of the steppe, it was more or less arrow proof and capable of use with either bow or lance. To feed these great horses alfalfa was supplied by the local peasants as pay for the protection given by those "cataphracts". (Ref. 279)
Back to Europe 600 to 501 B.C.
With the ultimate Greek victory over the Persians, many Mediterranean islands, including Rhodes and the Cyclades, now became dependents of Athens. Even the Etruscan held island of Lemnos fell to Athenian control in that period. At the end of the century, however, Rhodes pulled away, forming its own confederacy of three city-states. (Ref. 38)
In the first half of the century the city-states of Greece were occupied with continuous warfare with Persia with the first Persian attack coming in 490 B.C. by sea. In 480 B.C. there was the great battle of Thermophylae and a concurrent sea battle at Salamis in which Xerxes was defeated. Between 478 and 477 Athens organized the Delian League as a defense against future imperialism, with members being the Aegean coast and island allies, with headquarters at Delos, but with Athens as the leader. These Athenian imperialistic policies were engineered by Cimon, aristocratic successor of Themistocles. The Perisan wars ended about 449 B.C. as the Persian Empire deteriorated and most of the Greek cities, even those on the coast of Asia Minor and the Black Sea, became free.
The key to Athens’ extraordinary accomplishments in the first half of this century lay in her fleet, which maintained control of the Aegean and allowed goods from the eastern Mediterranean to enter through the port of Piraeus. The fleet thus not only carried the war across the Aegean to help liberate the Greek cities there, but also allowed foreign contact, thus bringing new ideas and concepts, all of which set the stage for cultural creativity. In this context we must not forget that behind all the shipping and trade was the necessity for Greece to import food. The life-line demanded grain, even though this 5th century B.C. did see the use of the domestic hen in almost every Athenian household and Greece now became the home of fine wines. Alfalfa was introduced by the Persians and subsequently the Greeks used this as horse fodder. (Ref. 47, 222)
Some modern writers have a tendency to idealize Greek life of this century and underplay some of the less tasteful aspects of that civilization. In all Greek states abortion or abandonment of children was permitted. Sparta arranged to prevent parents from knowing which were their own children and vice versa, while the state decided whether or not any child would be permitted to live. Homosexuality was widespread and publicly accepted. Athens had between 75,000 and 150,000 slaves representing some 25 to 35% of the population. (Ref. 213, 222) Finley (Ref. 249) says that this number is purely a guess, and that while the exact number of slaves is unknown, the important fact is that this was a slave society. Urbanism and the great increase in wealth initiated capitalism and with the extension of full rights to the lower classes, free hired labor could not meet the needs of the capitalists who, taking advantage of the almost continuous wars, turned to ever larger scale slave labor.
As in Phoenicia, some Greek ports constructed in that time of low sea levels in the Mediterranean are today below sea level. Medicine of that period in Greece was a mixture of religious mysticism with some rational thought and procedures. Ascelepios was worshipped as the God of Healing and temples were erected for him for that purpose over many centuries and were in present day terminology mixtures of religious shrines and health spas. Alcaeon, possibly of this century, wrote a book Concerning Nature, which may be the beginning of Greek medical literature, although only a few fragments survive. He established a connection between the sensory organs and the brain, described the optic nerves and concluded that the brain was the organ of the mind, therefore also responsible for thought and memory. A century later Aristotle thought erroneously that the heart was the center of sensation. (Ref. 213, 281, 224, 125)
NOTE: Insert Map: GREECE DURING THE PERSIAN WARS
The period 475 - 429 B.C. has been called the "Golden Age of Pericles", the greatest ruler of Athens. In view of the thousands of pages that have been written concerning ancient Greece, it is sometimes difficult to keep things in proper perspective. Attica was actually a small area, with Sunium, the most distant point from Athens, being only forty miles away (although admittedly this was a long walk, with only feet for transportation). It was, however, a period of literature, plastic arts and the development of the foundations of science. This was the time of Socrates, for whom philosophy was neither theology nor metaphysics but ethics and politics with logic an introduction and a means. (Ref. 47) It was the time of the historian Herodotus (born about 484 B.C.) and in lonia the time of the great physician Hippocrates who fostered the scientific approach to the treatment of disease as opposed to the priests' explanation that disease was the result of anger of the gods. He was born on the island of Cos in 460 B.C. and became known eventually as the "Father of Medicine". Protagoras (480 - 410 B.C.) was the chief proponent of the Sophists, who taught the virtue of proper use of words and a method of verbal reasoning according to rules of argument whereby a man might hope to unravel all the mysteries of the universe. Their doctrines, including one that stated that the law was a conspiracy of the weak against the strong, provided the oligarchy with justification for violence and chicanery used to overthrow the democracy eventually (414 - 411 B.C.) Other philosophies included that of the Cynics who cared only for virtue and relation of the soul to God with the world and its learnings amounting to nothing; and the Stoics and Epicureans, using logic and rhetoric toward a similar goal. Parmenides and Zeno, of the famous paradoxes, were Eleatics. (Ref. 47, 221)
This great age of Greece ended with the Peloponnesian War - a war of Sparta and her allies against Athens and hers, which raged for thirty years beginning in 431 B.C. and which wasted all the power of Greece. Forty years of aggressive Athenian imperialism and land grabbing activities had forced most mainland cities to look to Sparta for leadership. Athens had control of the seas but commanded few mainland areas outside of Attica, and it was obvious from the beginning that neither side could win. Then in 430 and 429 B.C. a pestilence, which may have been a malignant form of scarlet fever[55], killed off 25% of the Athenian land army. Thucydides said the infection had begun in Ethiopia, run into Egypt and Libya and most of Persia, then through Piraeus to Athens, itself. The latter never fully recovered and lost the war to Sparta. A peace which was supposed to last