(the modern Malegnano) September 13, 1515. A terrific struggle
ensued, abating only when the moon went down at midnight. Trivulzio
had cut his way through the force with his sword. Bayard, the
"Chevalier sans peur et sans reproche," for the first time in his life fled. At dawn the Swiss renewed to the attack. Their fortunes
fluctuated till noon, when the cries of "San Marco!" announced the
approach of the Venetians. These appeared to be about to cut off
retreat, and the plain on which the Swiss stood being now under
water—for the French had broken down the dykes of the Lambro—
the Eidgenossen were compelled to retire. This they did in
[Pg 241]
perfect order, carrying with them their wounded, and retaining their
guns and banners. They were, indeed, rather foiled than defeated,
and Francis, full of admiration for the Swiss, forbade his troops to
pursue. Trivulzio declared that the eighteen battles he had previously
witnessed were but child's play to that of Marignano.
In the November of the following year (1516) an "eternal peace" was
concluded between France and the Swiss, and this drew Switzerland
closer to her powerful neighbour. The material results of the war were
the acquisition of Ticino (which was admitted a canton in 1805), and
of Valtellina and Chiavenna. This defeat was a turning-point in Swiss
history, establishing as it did the supremacy of France. The part they
had hitherto played in European politics had come to an end, and the
ascendency they had so long maintained as a leading military power
had been strangely shattered. A decline was clearly inevitable.
A few words may be given here respecting the famous monastery of
St. Gall. The cloisters of St. Gall shed a bright lustre on Swabian
lands during its best period, from 800 to 1050 a.d. This famous
religious-house was a centre of art and high culture, and was a
blessing to the whole country. We can but allude to some of its
famous monks, such as the Notkers, Ekkehard, Rabbert, and so
forth; many famous as poets, musicians, savants, historians, and
teachers of the very highest rank. In the noted school attached to the
monastery there resided and were educated some three hundred
sons of the German and Helvetic
[Pg 242]
nobility. The discipline kept up was most severe. A story runs that
King Conrad I., on a visit to the institution, wished to put this to the
test, and caused to be scattered under the school benches a
basketful of fine apples. Not a single scholar touched the fruit, and, to
reward them for this very remarkable self-restraint, Conrad gave the
youths three holidays. But the number of anecdotes attaching to this
magnificent institution is endless.
FOOTNOTES:
Maximilian, however, lies buried at Wiener (Vienna) Neustadt. The
monument at Innsbruck was planned by the emperor himself, though it
took some generations to execute the work (1509-83). Twenty of the relievi
were the work of Colin of Mecheln, and excited the admiration of
Thorwaldsen even. The whole monument is highly interesting from both an
artistic and an historical point of view. Among the bronze figures that of
King Arthur is the most exquisite, and is by the famous Peter Vischer.
See p. 187.
"Here you might observe men's disposition," he writes, "caution, and cunning. They strive to puzzle one another with the view of drawing
advantage from the confusion. They pretend to one thing, but hope to get
another."
[Pg 243]
XXI.
THE GREAT COUNCILS; THE LANDSGEMEINDE AND
TAGSATZUNG, OR DIET; LITERATURE IN THE HEROIC
AGE.
Perhaps no better place than this can be found for discussing the
constitutional affairs of the enlarged Bund. A description of the
rouage administratif of each of the thirteen republics would be far too
tedious to the reader, and we shall therefore treat them collectively as
far as possible. The cantons naturally split into two divisions, those à
Grand Conseil, and the cantons à Landsgemeinde, the latter
including the country republics, the three Waldstätten, Glarus,
Appenzell, and Zug.
[Pg 244]
SARNEN, BERN.
[Pg 245]
We have seen in the case of Zurich how her council sprang into
existence and became the chief corner-stone of her constitutional
freedom, after she had been for generations dependent on an abbey.
In this latter respect Zurich but resembles Lucerne, Solothurn,
Geneva, and others, which went through similar phases of
development. Bern, however, received the stamp of independence at
her very birth—in the very charter of liberties involved in her
foundation—and her history ran more smoothly. Her government at
once took an aristocratic tinge, a close corporation of dominant
families ruling; and in this respect she resembled somewhat mighty
Venice. In the eighteenth century these ruling families numbered 360,
and kept at arm's length, as it were, the craftsmen, who, however,
were not entirely excluded from a share in the government. Vast
personal property and additional domains acquired by conquest
formed the chief source of the power of Bern, and brought in a great
income to the patricians. Rule, domination, statecraft, became the
chief concern of the Bernese aristocracy, whilst in Lucerne,
Solothurn, and Freiburg, the government was, if possible, still more
aristocratic than that of Bern, and in all these cases was presided
over by a Schultheiss, or Mayor. In the Zurich republic a more
democratic spirit was found, and the inhabitants were given to
industrial and intellectual pursuits rather than to rule and conquest.
Her trade was considerable, and her constitution had done away with
the prerogatives of the nobility. Owing to these things the way was
opened for her burghers into the government, and there sprang up an
ambition among the craftsmen to rise in the social scale. Zurich is the
prototype of the Geneva of the eighteenth century, the two cities
greatly resembling each other in their tendencies and movements,
religious and political. At Geneva the craftsmen, occupying the bas
de la ville, by their energy struggled to the haut de la ville, or quarter of the privileged classes. All authority was vested in the two
councils—the "Grosse Rath," a sort
[Pg 246]
CITY WALLS OF LUCERNE.
[Pg 247]
of legislative body numbering one hundred or two hundred members;
and the "Kleine Rath," a select committee of the former, consisting of
from twenty-five to thirty-six members, in whom rested the executive
and judicial power. In the liberal cantons the Burgomaster presided.
The Council, however, encroached upon the rights of the people at
large, and deprived them of direct influence in the management of
affairs. Basel and Schaffhausen followed in the track of Zurich.
Genuine democracies represent the cantons à Landsgemeinde. The
government embodied the will of a sovereign people, and from its
very antiquity commands our veneration and deserves special
attention. To time immemorial the ancient custom goes back. It was
known amongst the Greeks, and we meet with it in the
"Volksversammlung" of the early German tribes—the gathering of a
whole people around their king to administer justice or decide issues
of peace or war. These assemblies sprang up again in the thirteenth
century, in the Forest Cantons, but now became political meetings,
from the necessity of guarding against a common foe. The rule by
Landsgemeinde was adopted by eleven Alpine districts, of which two,
Gersau and Urseren, were almost microscopical. Five of these were
swept away, Schwyz amongst the number. Of these we shall not
speak. Yet the hoary and patriarchal custom still lingers on in some of
the secluded Alpine nooks, favoured by the isolation of the place, and
the génie conservateur innate in the Alpine folk. Unable, however, to
clearly understand the ancient Landsgemeinde except by reference
to the present age, we prefer to
[Pg 248]
draw the reader's attention to the living spring, the sacred spot where
he can "look face to face on freedom in its purest and most ancient
form"—to quote Freeman's fine words—a heart-stirring sight to
witness.
The last Sunday in April is the date usually fixed for the holding of the
Landsgemeinde. The gatherings all bear a general resemblance to
each other, yet each shows the influence of the locality, the religion,
or the industrial pursuits of the people. But whether we see the
meeting in Protestant and manufacturing Glarus, in Catholic and
conservative Unterwalden, or in picturesque Sarnen, the scene is one
never to be forgotten. Dressed in their Sunday best, and wearing the
sword, the badge of freedom—so orders the ancient ritual—the
ardent burghers flock to the national ring, or forum, to discharge their
civic duties. After early morning service, and a grand parade of
Landammann and staff, halberdiers, troops, and bands of music, the
Landsgemeinde opens at eleven with a religious ceremony. At
Trogen the hymn, "All life flows from Thee," is sung by ten thousand
voices, and, at the call of the Landammann, the vast crowd falls down
in silent prayer. The effect is grand and solemn. An address by the
Landammann follows, and then the business of the day is entered
upon. The inspection of the yearly accounts, the election of
magistrates and officials, amendment of existing laws and the
promulgation of new ones, are the chief items on the agenda list. All
the officers, from the Landammann himself down to the humblest
public servant, are subject to yearly election, though in the case of
the chief man re-election
[Pg 249]
usually takes place for many years. There are indeed regular
dynasties of Landammanns, so to speak, for the office may remain in
the same family for many generations. Assent to a proposal is given
by holding up the right hand, and this the crowd does with great
eagerness. The list of candidates is drawn up by the Landsgemeinde,
but, strange to say, free discussion on proposed reforms and new
laws is permitted only at Glarus. The question is discussed
beforehand by the Landrath, a legislative body elected by the parish.
"De minoribus rebus principes consultant, de majoribus omnes,"
writes Tacitus of the German Volksgemeinde, and the words apply
almost equally well here. The Landsgemeinde is, in fact, the supreme
court, which approves or annuls. So recently as the spring of 1888,
for instance, Urseren was deprived of its autonomy and joined to the
Canton of Uri, by order of the Landsgemeinde. And at Sarnen the
revision of the constitution was agreed to at the open and general
meeting. The election of the Waibel, or Summoner, gives rise to
much amusement, for in him the chief requisite is strength of lungs,
he being the mouthpiece of the Landammann. The installation of the
Landammann himself is the closing scene, and the most impressive
one. Slowly and solemnly he takes the oath of fidelity to the
constitution, and the people in return pledge themselves to stand by
the leader. With hands uplifted the vast crowd repeats the phrases
word by word as they are spoken by the Landammann. This mutual
engagement between leader and people—their hearts filled with the
sacredness of the
[Pg 250]
moment, and their voices swelling into one grand roll—is almost
overwhelming in its touching simplicity and fervour. That the custom
has maintained itself with but minor changes through so many
centuries answers for the admirable stability of the people, and the
suitableness of the régime itself.
The common tie that bound together the thirteen autonomous states
into one was the Diet or Tagsatzung. It met at one or other of the
chief towns—Zurich, Lucerne, Bern, Baden, and so forth. Each
canton was, as a rule, allowed one representative, and any one of the
cantons could summon a meeting, though this was generally done by
the Vorort or canton directeur—a position usually held by Zurich—
whose member likewise presided. The various cantons joined in the
discussions according to their rank and the order of their admission to
the league. This will be made clearer by the accompanying list. The
Boten, or envoys, not being plenipotentiaries, would post to and fro
between their governments and the Diet, to report progress and
receive instructions. As the proceedings were in later times
committed to writing, we have extant a most valuable series of
records called Abschiede (= leave or congé). Held at first but once a
year, the Diet occasionally met as many as fifty times in the course of
the twelvemonth, whilst a single session would last sometimes for
several weeks. At one period the meetings became international
congresses, at which the most important questions were deliberated.
But, in truth, the Diet, down to its extinction in 1848, never again
during its long existence exerted the vast influence it had in its
[Pg 251]
brilliant fifteenth-century period. Yet despite its many defects, and its
slow and round-about way of doing business, the Tagsatzung worked
successfully—far more so indeed than did the German Government.
A short sketch of the intellectual and literary life of the heroic period
may here be given. It is clear at the outset that an epoch so largely
given over to warfare and political progress would not be likely to
produce much meditative or reflective poetry. "The clash of arms
frightens the Muses," says an old proverb. (An exception must,
however, be usually made in the case of the peaceful and sheltered
cloister.) Yet this active and stirring period brought forth much
national literature. Throughout we find singers who in verse or prose
chant the national glory, and no episode of importance is without its
poetic chronicle or interpretation; the national enthusiasm vents itself
in war-song, in satire, in mock-heroics, or in rhyming chronicle.
Wandering poets living on the scanty proceeds of their lieder;
craftsmen who have taken up the sword; soldiers by profession—
these are the bards of the time. Rugged and unpolished sometimes
are their verses, for the Middle German is in a transition state, and
poetry has long since left courts and descended among the people. In
Germany, as everybody knows, had formed the body of the
Meistersinger. The historical "Folk songs" ( Volkslieder) are the overflowing of a nation's heart stirred to its depths by the thrilling
scenes around it, and they are the true expression of the temper of
the time. We need only allude to the songs inspired
[Pg 252]
by Sempach and Naefels, and the fiery song of Morat by Veit Weber,
an Alsacian, who fought in the Swiss ranks filled with patriotic
enthusiasm. Lucerne, too, has brought forth many poets—Auer,
Wick, Viol, Birkes, and others—who sang the glory of the great wars.
A song and a play dealing with Tell appeared about this time.
Along with the poet the chronicler springs up, and numerous
instances of this class are met with. At Bern we find Justinger (1420),
the first to draw historical knowledge from the Volkslieder, Diebold
Schilling (1484), and Anshelm; at Schwyz, John Fründ; at Lucerne,
Melchior Russ, Diebold Schilling, the chaplain, whose account of the
meeting at Stanz is most trustworthy, Petermann Etterlin, and Nicolas
Schradin; at Zurich, Gerold Edlibach, the noble knights Strettlinger of
Bern, who wrote the chronicles bearing their name, and the author of
the "White Book of Sarnen," complete the list. The "White Book" is much referred to by modern writers. The most brilliant annalist
perhaps is Tschudi, of whom mention was made in the chapter on the
foundation of the league. Biassed as the writers often are—nothing
else can be expected from the times—their records bear witness to
the national spirit of the Swiss, and to the intellectual revival taking
place. The first Helvetian typography was produced by Albert von
Bonnstetten, a Zurich nobleman, and Dean of Einsiedeln, and one of
the chief scholars of his age. He gave a trustworthy account of
Nicolas von der Flüe, and the Burgundian wars. Another great
scholar was his friend Nicolas von Wyl, a nobleman of Aargau.
[Pg 253]
The revival of letters introduced into the subtle scholasticism of the
time a world of new thoughts, learning, and refined literary tastes—
humanismus as the Germans so expressively call it. Nicolas von Wyl
is one of the oldest German-Swiss humanists. He extended the
Italian Renaissance to his native soil by his masterly translations of
Petrarch, Boccaccio, Poggio, and others. Æneas Sylvius, the elegant
poet, novelist, and orator, who rose to the Papal dignity as Pius II.,
would have had the world forget his fascinating but worldly writings.
"Rejicite Æneam, suscipite Pium," was his request. For twenty years
Æneas had laboured to bring classical culture to barbarian Germany.
His earliest pupil, Von Wyl,[46] became a great favourite at the German courts, and with the literary circle which the highly-cultivated Duchess
of Wurtemberg gathered around her. Von Wyl translated some of the
Latin works of Felix Malleolus, his friend and benefactor; for instance,
his biting satire on the idle Lollards and "Beghards." He died at
Zurich.
But if the courts and the nobles promoted the growth of the New
Learning, the universities were its chief support. That of Basel was
opened in 1460, under the auspices of Pius II. (Æneas Sylvius), who
granted its foundation charter. It rapidly gathered within its walls
some of the brightest minds of the day, amongst whom we need only
mention the world-famed Erasmus and Zwingli the reformer.
FOOTNOTES:
Prof. Bächtold's "Swiss-German Literature."
[Pg 254]
XXII.
THE REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND.
(1484-1531.)
The age of the Renaissance ushered in a century of intellectual
revolution, and wrought remarkable changes in art, in science, in
literature, in religion, and in every department of human life and
energy. The space at our disposal will permit us to touch only on one
of these developments, the religious. But the varying history of
religious movement well-nigh fills up the sixteenth century. The
revival of learning quickened the spirit of the Reformation, though
most of the savants disapproved of the movement, as in the case of
Erasmus and Glarean, a famous Swiss scholar. But whilst Luther's
training was monastic rather than scholarly, and whilst he was, if
anything, opposed to the New Learning, the great Swiss reformer
was a scholar of the first order, who drew his profound and liberal
ideas from his study of the classics. And it is a curious and
noteworthy fact that with the spread of letters in Switzerland, there
started up on its soil a
[Pg 255]
host of men of parts[47] who, forming a school of disciples, as it were, espoused the cause of their great leader, Zwingli, and promoted it,
each in his own canton. This is one peculiarity of the Swiss
Reformation.
The degeneracy of the Church passed all belief, and was, as every
one knows, the primary and chief cause of the Reformation on the
Continent; but in Switzerland there was yet another cause, quite as
important, which gave an impulse to the movement—the calamitous
consequences of the mercenary wars, touched upon in previous
chapters. Foreign pay had irresistible attractions for captain and man
alike, and the country was constantly being drained of its stoutest
arms and bravest hearts. It was difficult to over-estimate the baneful
effects of this practice on the national welfare, and, of all the noble
men who deplored these results, none felt it like Ulrich Zwingli. An
enthusiastic scholar, a gifted preacher, a zealous patriot, and a
remarkably able politician, he devoted his life to the work of rescuing
his people and country from their moral decline. This he proposed to
effect by the working of the Divine Word. Luther left the knotty skein
of politics to his princely friends to unravel, but Zwingli, on the
contrary, shrank from no political difficulties, encumbrances, or
complications. To his clear and far-seeing mind social and political
reform was inseparably bound up with religious change and progress.
The one would be of but little avail without the other, and the great
object of his life became the total regeneration of the
commonwealth—church and state both.
[Pg 256]
ULRICH ZWINGLI.
(After Asper.)
[Pg 257]
Ulrich Zwingli was born at Wildhaus, among the song-loving
Toggenburger, in the canton of St. Gall, January 1, 1484. The
talented youth was destined for the Church by his father, a highly-
respected magistrate, and was sent to school at Basel, and
afterwards studied at Bern. Here sprang up his enthusiasm for
classical studies under the famous Lupulus, whilst the friars were so
struck with his musical talents that they tried hard to keep him in the
cloisters. However, in 1500 he left for