FUNAI has worked hard in its attempt to acquire the Kawahiva a recognized, demarcated territory to make them safer from attacks. In 2001, FUNAI began the arduous process of setting up a reserve on traditional Kawahiva land in Northwestern Mato Grosso State, near the Rondonia State border on the east and the Amazonas State border to the North. Unfortunately, this land is located within the ‘arc of deforestation’, an extensive sweeping curve similar in shape to a scythe blade that runs from east to west across the Southern Amazon basin. To the North is a predominately undisturbed Amazon rainforest; to the South is a much obliterated forest, by timber logging, then burnt to make room for cattle pastures, and then re-cleared to establish soy plantations. The ‘arc’ is for the most part moving Northward to satisfy the greedy appetites of illegal loggers, cattle ranchers, miners, land grabbers, and soy farmers. Accessibility into and through this forest area was improved in the 1980s following the construction of the MT-206 highway.
In 2005, FUNAI undertakings exposed temporary camps and animal traps made by the Kawahiva. There was no doubt as to the presence of Kawahiva. The Federal Police and IBAMA arrested nearly 3 dozen people accused of land theft and illegal deforestation. For several years, the situation appeared to be a bit more hopeful. Then, things began to fall apart.
“Everything calmed down until about 2012. But since then it has turned into hell, mainly because loggers and land thieves are once again invading the area. The government has taken very few actions to control, monitor or impose some kind of order over the occupation,” said Jair Candor, who works for FUNAI. (By Sue Branford, January 3, 2019; mongabay.com: Brazil’s Indigenous Agency Acts to Protect Isolated Kawahiva People).
“Ranchers want to make money and they simply occupy the land. In general terms, Mato Grosso is a state where invaders still use brute force: arriving, deforesting and occupying, all illegally,” said Ivar Busatto, from Native Amazonian Operation (OPAN), and NGO. (ibid).
The Kayapo (Caiapo in Portuguese) are an indigenous people in Brazil who inhabit an extensive area spread across Para and Mato Grosso States, South of the Amazon basin near the Rio Xingu River and its tributaries. There are an estimated 9,000 Kayapo; the 4 sub-groups include the Gorortire, Mentragnoti, Metyktire, and Xikrin. They call themselves Mebengokre or ‘the men from the water place’. The term ‘Kayapo’, means ‘those who look like monkeys’ is used by neighbouring peoples. This is because Kayapo wear monkey masks in a men’s ritual. They refer to outsiders as ‘Poanjos’. The Kayapo language is part of the Je family.
The Kayapo live in several scattered villages ranging from dozens to one thousand persons. Their land is tropical rainforest savannah and is the largest tropical protected area in the world consisting of 11,346,326 hectares. It is home to many endangered species.
The Kayapo use complex, well-designed body-paint covering their bodies. They believe that their ancestors obtained their social skills from insects; body-paint is used to mimic them. Black body-paint is good camouflage for forest hunting. Tribal identity determines what colours are used. To prevent themselves from getting lost and finding their way within the forest, Kayapo paste red pigment on their legs. This pigment rubs off when it rubes with forest matter; in effect. Kayapo practice slash-andburn horticulture.
Large lower-lip disks are still worn by the elderly, but the practice has been dying out among the youth. Men decorate themselves with vibrant feathers in their hair, which represents the universe. Due to contact with non-Indians it’s normal to see Kayapo men wear western-style dress. Kayapo children wear coloured beaded bands representing their tribes. Kayapo women wear a V shaped into their hair. The elders play a vital role in society. Nearly every morning the elder, holding a borduna (a heavy wooden decorative object, symbol of authority) in his hands, performs his duty. Kayapo share everything for the common good of the villagers. It’s important that no one in the village goes hungry. Children are educated by relatives.
The Kayapo have struggled to hold onto their land rights. In the village of Gorotire, the Kayapo and mining prospectors came to an agreement that ensured the Kayapo would get a percentage of the mining proceeds, and their territory was divided. Initially, the Kayapo believed that gold mining would be beneficial for them. Unfortunately, gold mining caused dangerous levels of pollution in the waterways, infecting fish with high levels of mercury. Social behaviours were adversely affected by outside influences; higher levels of disease, limited access to medical care, and increased conflicts with other villages resulting from a reduction of resources. The Kayapo used aggressive tactics against loggers and miners in some areas.
In 1987, additional problems ensued when the government put forward a plan to build a number of hydroelectric dams to be built in the Xingu River area, in particular, the Belo Monte Dam. These dams would adversely affect the Kayapo, displacing more than 20,000 people from their lands. Under the direction of Paulinho Paiakan, the Altamira Gathering was led by the Kayapo, receiving international media attention. This demonstration, done at the proposed site of the first dam in Altamira, Para, lasted several days, pressuring the World Bank and the Brazilian Government. The Kayapo demanded to receive withheld government information regarding the negative consequences to their people from the building of the dam, as well as rural Brazilians living in the Xingu River area.
In 2013, leaders of 26 Kayapo communities refused a $9 million offer from Brazil’s state-owned electricity agency Electrobas to support the next 4 years of hydropower development projects in the Amazon. The Belo Monte Dam was completed in 2016; it’s the third largest dam in the world. Only the Three Gorges Dam in China and the Brazilian-Paraguayan Itaipu Dam are larger.
“We have decided that your word is worth nothing. The conversation is over. We, the Mebengore Kayapo people have decided that we do not want a single penny of your dirty money. We do not accept Belo Monte or any other dam on the Xingu. Our river does not have a price, our fish that we eat does not have a price. We will never stop fighting: In Altamira, in Brasilia, or in the Supreme Court. The Xingu is our home and you are not welcome here.”(survivalupdate.com: Amazon Kayapo Indians Got Damned).
“Tens of thousands of indigenous and traditional peoples were forced from their homes, and had to give up their fishing livelihoods. Meanwhile, the city of Altamira endured boom and bust, as workers flooded it, then abandoned it.” (ibid).
The Komi people are native to Russia’s tough, extreme north. For much of their history they remained relatively isolated from the rest of Russia until the 20th century. They speak a Permic language of the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic family. The people are divided into 2 main groups; Komi-Zyrians, Komi-Permyaks. The Russian Empire forcefully incorporated the Komi Republic into its rule in the 14th century. Since then, the Komi have been scantily Russian Orthodox. In reality, their religious beliefs are a mixture of Christianity and shamanism.
Traditionally, the Komi were reindeer herders, however, the pressures of industrialization and of the modern world has caused them to be involved in mining and logging North of the Arctic Circle near Vorkuta. Their long relative isolation ended at the end of the Second World War. Russification is leaving its mark on youngsters.
During the Soviet period, Komi were targets of the Stalinist purges; the 1930s witnessed a devastation of Komi intellectuals, accused of ‘bourgeois nationalism’. Large-scale migrations of political prisoners into the Komi Republic and industrialization had a devastating demographic effect on the natives, making them a minority in their own lands. A massive GULAG was built near Vorkuta due to the presence of vast natural resources and its isolation. The Komi were persecuted, and their language and cultural practices were severely hampered. They’re trying to preserve their language by teaching it in school.
The Komi Republic includes Russia’s first place to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Virgin Komi Forests contain a plethora of animal, bird, and plant species throughout
3 million hectares of untapped wild, natural beauty. In 1991, the Komi began to reassert their unique identity.
The Korowai tribe (Kolufo) lives in West Papua in the Indonesian province of Papua; they number approximately 3,000, but are gradually disappearing. They were were unknown to outsiders until Dutch missionaries entered their land in the 1970s. Shockingly, Korowai tribe members were completely oblivious to the existence of outsiders. Many members still believe that outsiders carry demons and evil spirits. The Korowai language is part of the Awyu-Dumut family.
Komi tree houses are an incredible feat. (Rumah Tinggi or High House), are 140 feet high in the forest. A typical tree house is built and supported by stilts, designed for protection from the elements, hostile outsiders, the Kombai tribe (a neighbour and long-time enemy), animals, and ‘evil spirits’ that skulk below the treetops and canopies. Whole families live in individual tree houses, sometimes separate living quarters are assigned for the sexes. Tree houses have large Banyan or Wanbon trees as the footing or main poles. Smaller poles may be added to the corners of the houses for additional support. The poles are strapped together with rafia (fibre from the leaves). The roof is made from Sago palm trees. Houses are ‘blessed’ with animal fat. Wooden ladders are used to allow accessibility to the tree house. The typical tree house may contain up to 15 persons. Homes usually last about 5 years. In 2018, the BBC disclosed that tree houses were built:
“for the benefit of overseas programme makers” and did not actually live in them. (BBC Admits Tree House Scene from Human Planet Series was Faked).
The Korowai are talented hunters and fishermen. Animals include wild boar, cassowary (a large flightless bird related to the emu), deer, lizards, snakes, and any other edible animal found in the forest. Hierarchy is based on personal characteristics of big men. Inter-clan warfare usually occurs because of witchcraft or sorcery related reasons.
Hunting animals, perceived invaders, and unwelcome outsiders is done with bow and arrows. The bow contains a barb on it; it will be aimed at the target until peace has been established. Men marry in their twenties, women are married off following menstruation. Papua New Guinea has a long history of cannibalism. Most researchers believe that the Korowai no longer practice cannibalism. Although some tribal members claim it still exists, it’s likely that its a good story, impressing researchers, tourists, and other visitors.
Traditionally, cannibalism was not done out of hunger or for nourishment. It was a form of punishment inflicted upon those who practice witchcraft (khuakhua). The flesh was shared by all tribal village members. It was necessary to kill and eat the possessed person that was taken over. Some believed that the khuakhua whispers its own name upon death, identifying the evil that spirit possessed their tribal member.
The Livonians (Livs), are a Balto-Finnic people living on the Northern edge of the peninsula between the Bay of Riga and the Baltic Sea. Traditionally, they spoke Livonian, a Uralic language related to Estonian and Finnish. There are an estimated 250 – 300 Livonians remaining in Latvia. In the mid-1990s there were only about 10 people who spoke Livonian as their mother tongue. The language was on the verge of extinction. In 1992, the Latvian government established a cultural historic protected territory (Livonian Coast)containing all 12 of the Livonian villages. The Latvian government discouraged settlement of Latvians and other non-Livonians into the area. Furthermore, it’s forbidden for anyone to build a hotel, restaurant, other public establishment which may have an adverse effect on the Livonian culture.
Today many Latvians claim to have some Livonian ancestry. In 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Latvia regained its independence. The Latvian government officially recognized Livonians as an indigenous minority, and granted their language protection. All rights and property taken from them during Soviet rule was to be returned.
The Maasai (Masai) are an east African tribe who inhabit part of southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania near the Ngorongoro crater. They speak the Maa language, part of the Nilotic language family. Maasai are one of the most renowned people of African tribes. During the 16th and 17th centuries they migrated South from modern day Sudan and South Sudan. They were successful in animal husbandry especially herding cattle. Maasai warriors are known for their beautiful red hair, their height, and physical tenacity. They were brave and talented warriors, dominating the Rift Valley grasslands, adapting well to their environment.
“[Maasai] established a virtual monopoly of the Rift Valley grasslands all the way from the Uasin Gishu plateau in north-western Kenya to the Maasai steppe in north-central Tanzania, a distance of approximately 970 kilometres …the Maasai predominance drove back and fundamentally changed the way of life of the older established Southern Paranilotic group.” (654). (By Mark Cartwright, November 18m 2019; Ancient History Encyclopedia: Maasai People).
“In these fine pastures, in fact, the central Maasai sections succeeded ... in pursuing the pastoral ethic to its ultimate extreme,” as written by the UNESCO General History of Africa Vol. II. (By Mark Cartwright, November 18, 2019; Ancient History Encyclopedia; Maasai People).
In 2019, there were approximately 1.9 million Maasai in Kenya, compared to just over 377,000 in 1989. The Tanzanian and Kenyan governments have established programs to encourage the Maasai to give up their traditional semi-nomadic way of living; but many Maasai maintain their traditional ways. Maasai have a strong oral tradition which strengthened their belief that they were the only true pastoralists in East Africa, and superior to others especially Dorobo (hunters).
“GOD let down a bark-rope ... from the sky and began to let cattle down, until there were so many that they intermingled with those of the Dorobo. Then the Dorobo came, and when he could no longer recognize his cattle among those of the Maasai, he was angry and shot away the bark-rope with an arrow ... GOD caused the cattle to stop descending and he moved up into the sky, and was never seen on the ground again. Thus all the cattle which Maasai now own were first given to them by GOD,” quoted from P. Curtin’s African History, 113. (ibid).
With the aforementioned attitude in mind, the Maasai continued to expand their territory, sometimes called Maasailand. During the 17th and 18th centuries empty or sparsely populated lands were sought. Later, the population of tribes in the area increased, resulting in an increase in density and competition. By the 19th century, the Maasai were forced to fight for their land and animal grazing rights. Maasai warriors were feared by other tribes. Shields and spears were used, and their club-throwing abilities were unparalleled; with optimum accuracy up to 100 metres. This expansion was followed by a catastrophe known as the Maasai ‘Emutai’(1883-1902), bovine disease, rinderpest (infectious disease of ruminants, in particular cattle), and smallpox.
The estimate first put forward by a German lieutenant in what was then Northwest Tanganyika, was that, “90% of cattle and half of wild animals perished from rinderpest. German doctors in the same area claimed that "every second" African had a pock-marked face as the result of smallpox. This period coincided with drought. Rains failed completely in 1897 and 1898.” (“Ecology Books and Journals”. Blackwell Publishing. Archived from the Original).
"There were women wasted to skeletons from whose eyes the madness of starvation glared ... warriors scarcely able to crawl on all fours, and apathetic, languishing elders. Swarms of vultures followed them from high, awaiting their certain victims." (Baumann 1894, Masailand).
As a result of population increase, external pressure and interference by colonizers and other tribes, loss of cattle due to disease, poaching, a deficiency in rangelands, Maasai were forced to find new methods of sustaining themselves. Many turned to cultivating maize and other crops; this practice is viewed resentfully. Worse yet, in 1975, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area prohibited cultivation, forcing Maasai to enter Tanzania’s cash economy. They sold their animals and traditional medicines to purchase necessary items.
Maasai culture is firmly patriarchal. Traditionally, a man’s prestige in the community was based on how many cattle he owned. Important group matters are usually decided by elderly men. Livestock was a mark of prosperity. Bride price was paid in livestock. Each and every Maasai tribal member belonged to a family, clan, and local group. Wealthier Maasai groups allowed some individuals to perform other activities including basket making, religion, cloth and fabric work, and religion.
Maasai live in settlements of about a dozen huts per homestead. A barrier made of thorns acts as a line of demarcation and protection for the household and livestock. Women build huts, milk cows, perform household chores, and are known for their beautiful beadwork. They’re considered inferior to men, her word is not worth much, little or no education, has no right to divorce, if widowed or divorced cannot marry again. If he she is widowed she’s inherited by a male member of her husband’s family. She has little to no options in improving herself; life expectancy for women is 45. Female circumcision is a practice of the Maasai. Men care for the cattle and protect members of the community from attacks and cattle bandits.
Young Maasai men are expected to become warriors, but not all do. A prospective warrior must endure an open circumcision in front of the whole tribe without visibly indicating any sign of pain. Following healing, they’ll move on to the next stage, including spending months in the wild where they’re taught how to kill predators.
The Maasai resisted occupation by the colonialists of central Kenya and helped other Kenyan tribes escape the slave traders. They prevented slave catchers’ convoys from finding a safer route to Uganda by making it dangerous for them to go through Kenya. The Maasai fought the British (1890-1900) with spears against machine guns. By the early 20th century, the Maasai could hardly resist the British. Thousands of Maasai had been killed, most livestock were taken and used to feed the occupying troops.
In 1904 the British forced the brutalized Maasai to leave the fertile grazing land of the Rift Valley, and to make their new home in the Southern Reserves in Narok, which were rife with diseases. For decades, the Maasai were neglected, left to whither away. Tanzania’s Maasai had to deal with foreigners acquiring ‘rights’ to shoot animals on their land, to film people without their permission, and mineral prospecting that’s polluting the land.
The Maori are an indigenous people of New Zealand. They trace their origin to eastern Polynesia, arriving in several waves of canoe voyages, the first in about 950 CE., followed by other waves until about 1350 CE., the latter evolved into modernday Maori. Hundreds of years of isolation resulted in a unique culture, whose language, beliefs, traditions, art, and entertainment developed independently from those of other eastern Polynesians. The new settlers arrived with their domesticated animals and plants; not all survived the new environment. Europeans began to arrive in New Zealand in the 17th century, bringing about profound changes to the Maori way of life. Many Maori eventually adopted elements and behaviours of European society and culture. Initially, relations between the 2 peoples were, by comparison to other colonialist to indigenous peoples, friendly. Nevertheless, the Europeans came to stay and to acquire more land and gain control. The British introduced alcohol and firearms to the Maori, along with new diseases, and large-scale land confiscations. The aforementioned devastated the Maori population. In 1840, the 2 sides signed the Treaty of Waitangi; signed by Maori chiefs and representatives of the British crown.
The treaty was supposed to grant the Maori recognition and protection by the British. By the 1860s, the 2 peoples were fighting; the Maori fought for their personal, tribal, and land rights. The Maori people and culture have enjoyed a renaissance of sorts, supported by the Maori Protest Movement of the 1960s. Starting in the 1980s, New Zealand has focused more on biculturalism.
“{Today}, Maori culture is an integral part of life in New Zealand, influencing everything from cuisine to customs.” (www.newzealand.com: MAORI CULTURE).
Maori is an official language in New Zealand, its normal to hear Te Reo Maori spoken; New Zealand Sign Language is the third language of the country.
“In the 2013 Census, 21.3 percent of all Māori reported that they could hold a conversation in Māori about everyday things. This was a decrease from 23.7 percent in 2006 and 25.2 percent in 2001. Of the 148,400 people (or 3.7 percent of the total New Zealand population) who could hold a conversation in Māori in 2013, 84.5 percent identified as Māori.” (Maori Language Speakers: The Social Report Te purongo orange tangata).
More work needs to be done to correct past wrongs and those of the present. Compared to other New Zealanders, Maori acquire less assets in their lifetime, and they face bigger social and economic problems. More than 50 percent of Maori live in areas in the 3 highest poverty deciles. This is just over twice the rate of non-Maoris. 14 percent of New Zealanders are Maori, but they comprise nearly 50 percent of the prison population. They’re more likely to be arrested for alcohol-related crimes and minor crimes. They have higher rates of unemployment, alcohol and drug abuse, obesity, and smoking, and endure more systemic racism.
"I think we can refute any claims of there not being racism in the New Zealand police with their own data. Data shows that Māori are far more likely almost nine times more likely to have a dog set upon them, or to have an armed response in relation to policing.
Their [African-Americans] experience of racism and systemic injustice, those are experiences that resonate with us they came from a different place, and different histories, so I wouldn't overplay that too much but racism is racism, systemic injustice is systemic injustice. As human beings we can connect to that experience and voice our displeasure with it and stand in solidarity with any people that are subject to similar injustices." (By Meriana Johnsen, June 2, 2020; RNV; No doubt racism exists in New Zealand Police Māori law expert).
The Mbuti (Bambuti), include several indigenous pygmy groups in the Congo region of Africa. They speak Sudanic and Bantu languages. They live in the Ituri rainforest, an area comprising around 27,027.1511 square miles (70,000 square kilometres). There are between 30,000 and 40,000 Mbuti, including 4 distinct cultures. Sadly, many escaped to safety in resettlement camps near the Congolese city of Goma because of the savage fighting by armies and militias in their forests.
Mbuti practice hunting and gathering and live in groups of no more than 60 people, called bands. Each hut, which is small, round, and short-term, contains one family. Villages are usually scattered and far apart. Just before the dry season, Mbuti leave their village to the forest where they camp, forage, and set animal traps.
The Ituri rainforest receives 50 to 70 inches (127 to 177.8 centimetres) of annual rainfall. On account of the moist and humid conditions the Mbuti people and their animals endure recurrent health problems. The Mbuti believe that the forest is their father, mother, protector, provider, and healer, because it forms the most important aspect of their livelihoods, gives them food, shelter, and clothing. They don’t believe in evil spirits or sorcery.
Mbuti eat antelope, ants, crabs, fish, larvae, monkeys, and snails; giant boars and rats are considered kweri, an unhealthy animal which may make those who eat it sick. These 2 animals are used in trade with the Bantu peoples. Non-animal foods eaten include berries, fruits, honey, leaves, nuts, roots, and yams. They hunt using bow and arrows, nets, and traps. Women and children drive the animals towards the traps. Mbuti sometimes supplement their diet by providing labour for nearby farmers, for which they receive external goods and vegetables.
Mbuti practice patrilineal descent, residence following marriage is patrilocal. The family type is nuclear. Women’s main chores include cooking, obtaining water, cleaning, and repairing huts. Children are cared for by both parents. Internal conflicts are normally settled quickly, done through laughter, ridicule, and jokes. The camp clown has the responsibility of ending conflicts through humour, using mime and antics to redirect the conflict unto himself. There is no official method of settling disputes and crimes; no person can pass a sentence upon another. However, if an individual is obviously in the wrong punishment or thrashing may ensue. Settlement can be made by arguing or light fighting.
Sadly, the forces of the ‘outside world’ can at times be quite horrible and devastating. Indigenous peoples often times find themselves the direct or indirect target of conflicts. More so, indigenous tribes are for the most part viewed as inferior and sub-human to outsiders.
"The