.doc, .docx
Microsoft Word Template files
.dot, .dotx
Electronic Publication files (ebook)
.epub
Microsoft Windows executable application file
.exe
GIF picture image file
.gif
Microsoft Graph file
.gra
Disc Image file
.iso
JPEG picture photo file
.jpg, .jpeg
Mobi file for reading ebooks on mobile and
.mobi
e-reader devices
Apple Movie file
.mov
MP3 Audio file
.mp3
MP4 Video file
.mp4
Open Document Text file
.odt
Open Document Template file
.ott
Adobe Portable Document Format file
Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation files
.ppt, .pptx
Rich Text Format
.rtf
Text file
.txt
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.wav
Windows Metafile
.wmf
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet file
.xls,
Microsoft Binary Workbook file
.xlsb
Microsoft Excel Workbook file
.xlsx
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Template file
.xlt
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Template file
.xltx
Zip compression file (also called an archive file)
.zip
9.5. Office Suites
Software office application suites generically include a wordprocessor, spreadsheet and presentation app. They may include other apps, such as: drawing, maths or email apps.
There are several available free for download or for purchase. Some of the popular office suites include: Microsoft Office, LibreOffice, OpenOffice and some others.
microsoft.com (paid)
libreoffice.org (free)
openoffice.org (free)
Whilst Microsoft retains the label as the initial standard, most Office Suite software packages can open, edit and save any Microsoft .file extension.
9.6. Documents
The first documents were text documents with a file extension .txt Then Microsoft introduced the first commercial word processing program called Microsoft Word.
It became and possibly still is today, the world's most popular document format - the .doc file.
The template file format and extension is .dot (dot dot).
It evolved into the .docx file (XML style of the .doc file format). It is considered an international standard these days and is recognised by most word processors today, which means that this type of file can be opened, edited and saved. The template is .dotx.
9.7. Spreadsheets
Spreadsheets took off (suddenly became very popular) and have become a useful tool for mathematics, science, accounting, management and business.
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The generic file formats for spreadsheets are .xls and .xlsx.
The generic file formats for templates are .xlt and .xltx.
9.8. Presentations
Presentations have become the choice of meeting presentation platform mediums, available today.
The generic file formats for presentations are .ppt and .pptx.
The generic file formats for presentation templates are .pot and .potx.
9.9. PDF’s
The PDF document has become a document format and extension of choice, for modern-day technology users. Adobe’s famous Portable Document Format, or PDF, has become an international/universal standard in document sharing formats. These days, anyone can print a PDF
document file, by pressing together the Ctrl + P keys to “print” a PDF, or save as a “PDF.”
10.
Pictures – Photos – Images
Technology has increased the production, sending and receiving of photographs (photos). A photo can also be called, or known as, a picture or image.
There are different kinds of images. A photo is classed or termed as an image, because that is the general heading. A photo is an analogue or digital image of people, animals, nature, scenery or objects. A picture is a painting or drawing of something or someone.
The messaging or emailing of photos has become a past-time, meaning that it has become popular and normal amongst the population or people.
Photo manipulation or editing, has become almost a ‘best-seller’ in terms of becoming very popular.
Just like the phrases ‘Google it’, ‘Photoshop it,’ and ‘it’s been Photoshopped,’ have become popular sayings, modern technology lingo has evolved and continues to evolve. ‘Photoshopped’ means that the image has been ‘touched – up,’ similar to air-brushing or like the auto paint shop to repair your car’s paint or exterior body. This term comes from the all popular software program called Adobe Photoshop. People can use apps to change or manipulate a selfie or other photo on their smartphone.
This feature or function is very popular these days among people, particularly young people, to remove any skin blemishes or unwanted backgrounds.
The most widely used photo formats are: .gif, .jpeg, .jpg and .png files. They are commonly used across the world these days. These file formats are the most popular format for images on smartphones, tablets, computers and the internet. They are used in messaging apps and email for people to send and receive pictures or photos – virtually anything taken with your digital camera on your smartphone or camera.
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Audio and video have both progressed side-by-side throughout their development from the 1950’s until the present day. Digital audio has changed the complete audio, music and video industries since its inception in the 1990’s. Audio has transformed from analogue vinyl records to digital MP3’s.
Sounds have changed from being played in/on heavy record players to small and lightweight smartphones.
Video has progressed from a simple fluorescent green texted terminal for mainframe computers, to touchscreen high-resolution video screens projected to the user on glass (smartphones or tablets and some all-in-one computers). Today, there are far more choices of what you want compared to what there was available back in 1960.
So we can have more choices suited to our individual needs and/or requirements in the home or at work. Now more than ever...movies, games, videos, photos and music are all computerised and of high quality: high performance graphics and crisp sounding equalised audio tracks – the capabilities are far more advanced now. Now we can stream video and audio across a wireless WiFi network while playing it from somewhere across the other side of the world – all across the internet in real-time.
It’s quite spectacular in what humans have achieved with online technologies in only a relatively short span of time. Quite amazing achievements have been made in only one single generation.
Streaming video and audio (sound) to an iPad, a notebook, a Google phone, an iPhone and to a tablet are all possible today, thanks to advances in technology. So, understanding the technology is important in understanding what is going on, so that your experience with using the device(s) or technologies is as easy as possible to take full advantage of it, as well as fully enjoying whatever it is that you wish to use and enjoy.
11.1. Analogue to Digital Transformation
The old CRT TV’s and monitors have disappeared from the shops and have been replaced by digital screens. So what was the difference between the two (2)? Well, basically analogue means a moving physical signal or image of some kind, such as: time, sound, a picture or a movie.
So for example a wrist watch with moving hands is an analogue watch. However, a watch with a screen displaying digits is a digital watch, because it is all electronic with no moving parts (no hands, in this example). The same theory goes for phones and phone calls, satellite TV, ADSL, WiFi, and Bluetooth – almost everything has switched over into a digital signal or format.
Cable technologies were traditionally analogue with analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue converters such as a telephone line to an ADSL WiFi Router box.
Analogue (Analog) = long wave signal, with moving part(s) or non-electronic.
Digital = short wave signal, without moving part(s) or electronic.
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Basically analogue (analog) means mechanical, electrical or moving and digital means electronic (non-mechanical or non-moving).
The traditional technology used to send radio wave signals is analogue – it is called Radio Frequency or ‘RF.’ Today, RF is transmitted and received in digital format also.
RF has been around for a long time, however the modulation is digital which basically means that the data is controlled and digitised before it is sent. At the receiving end, the digital data can be converted back into an analogue format, usable by the receiving device.
11.2. Audio
Sound has evolved considerably using technology, allowing machines to create, record, change and send music or any other sound.
Audio files such as .mp3, .WAV, .AAC and other audio file types are available for use with computers and smartphones or other devices such as MP3 Bluetooth speakers.
11.2.1. Bluetooth and Wired (cable) Audio Devices
1.
Bluetooth
This is possibly the most popular of Bluetooth device – the Bluetooth speaker. These ‘combo’
speaker units are quite amazing, in that anyone can carry sound with them ‘ on-the-go.’
2.
Cable
Cable audio is still highly popular, because of stability and reliability. Typical connectors are a male jack and a female socket.
11.2.2. Audio (Sound) File Formats (File Types .xxx)
1.
.WAV
WAV (pronounced / wave/) files are a music industry standard in the recording studio business. Dot WAV (Waveform Audio File) formatted files are usually uncompressed analogue or digital mono audio tracks. Developed by IBM and Microsoft back in 1991, it quickly became popular amongst sound recording engineers and studios, being the preferred format for audio tracks in the studio.
WAV was and still is ‘raw’ sound, which means that it is basically untouched since/after it was recorded.
2.
.M4A MPEG-4 Audio
Apple’s main audio file format is the .M4A which it promotes as its primary audio format.
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.MP3 MPEG-3
The dot m-p-three audio format is one of the most popular audio file formats for sounds across the globe. These have been around a long time and can be used in almost any computer, tablet or smartphone.
4.
.OGG Open Source
This file format allows for streams, pictures, audio and video. It is open source, so it is not widely distributed like other formats. It has Android and iPhone support (supported on those devices).
5.
.AAC All platforms supported
Advanced Audio Coding is supported by all smartphones and computer audio software to allow for great compatibility across all devices, making it a standard, or universal, in effect.
6.
Streaming Audio (Internet Audio)
Real Networks created a streaming protocol RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol) and also made their own downloadable or pre-installed Real Player. Real Player was quite popular during the 1990’s into the early 2000’s, until the iStore, Spotify and other app sites boomed in popularity.
Today, you can stream video meetings/chats, radio stations and virtually whatever you want using audio and video. The amount of video chat apps available on Android and iPhone is astonishing.
7.
.RA Real Networks
Real Audio files emerged in 1997 as an audio format for streaming audio (sound) over the internet.
8.
.RM Real Networks
Real Media files combine Video and Audio together, such as movies and videos streamed over the internet.
11.3. Video
Ever since digital photographs were first used, quality has been defined by how ‘fine’ the picture detail is, which is correlated (related) to how much data or large the picture size will be.
DPI or ‘dots per square inch,’ became the standard term, used frequently to describe the resolution of screens, pictures and printers. The more dots per square inch, the sharper the image and finer or higher the resolution, which equals better quality.
PPI or ‘pixels per square inch,’ increased in numbers and so video development achieved high resolution graphics for TV’s, smartphones and monitors.
11.3.1. Webcams
Webcams are a popular peripheral that are increasing in quality (video resolution [definition]) and also include a microphone to record your voice.
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Webcams record video in real-time for video chat and meetings using apps over the internet.
They are connected via a USB cable to your computer's USB port. They provide video and sound into your computer and then onto your recipient at the other end of the chat or meeting session. HD
or High-Definition video emerged in the 1990's and the video quality is now higher with more definition or pixels per square inch (ppi).
Display Resolutions:
720p HD Ready! (HD 720)
1280 x 720 pixels
Full HD (HD 1080)
1920 x 1080 pixels
Ultra HD 4K (4K UHD)
3840 x 2160 pixels
11.3.2.
Video File Formats (File Types - .xxx File Extension))
1.
.MP4 Android
MPEG-4 is a very popular format used for making videos or movies. Dot m-p-four files are of the most widely used video file formats across the world.
2.
.AVI Microsoft
The Audio Video Interleave file format was introduced by Microsoft in 1992 as a new video file type. It was incorporated into Microsoft’s Windows operating system as the main video format that can be played on the Windows Media Player program, preinstalled with Windows. People could store .avi movies onto their computers or onto CD’s.
3.
.3GP 3GPP2
3GPP .3gp video files are supported on most smartphones, which means that they will play on most phones, using a supporting player such as VLC media player (a multi-platform and multimedia file format video and audio player).
11.4. Media Players
Since the 1990’s, software media players for computers, and now smartphones, has moved from platform dependency such as either a Microsoft Windows format .avi or Apple Macintosh .mov to multi-platform players which support the new .mp4 video format.
So for a long time, there were media player compatibility issues, just the same as with Microsoft Office applications (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook etc.) that opened, edited or created content on Microsoft Windows OS’s versus opened, edited or created on Apple Mac OS’s.
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iTunes is the default media player for iPhone. You may need to sign in to your account to use this app. It can be used to listen to music, purchase music, watch videos, purchase videos, backup and restore your Apple device.
11.4.2. Android
Google Play Music was introduced as Android’s default music player in 2011 and was replaced in 2020 by YouTube Music as the default music player.
Gallery is the default app for viewing photos/pictures/images. Inside the Gallery app, you can preview videos such as .mp4 and then fully open the video by pressing ‘Play video,’ to open the Video Player app and watch the video in full screen mode with sound.
11.4.3. Windows
Windows Media Player was the original default media player built into its Windows Operating Systems up until Windows 8.1. Then in Windows 10, Microsoft replaced it with Groove Music and Microsoft Movies & TV. In Windows 11, these have been replaced with Media Player.
11.4.4. Mac OS X
QuickTime player is the default media player for Macintosh OS X that can play audio and video files. To watch videos, there is a preinstalled app called DVD Player, as well as i Movie and iTunes apps, which can be downloaded free from the App Store. So there are several options to watch movies on your computer or stream them online.
There is also a music app included called Music to play music and an app called Photo Booth to record videos and audio with.
11.4.5. Linux
VLC Media Player is a multi-platform media player, open-source (free) and is available for Windows, Mac OS X, iPhone, Android and Linux. This makes it one of the most popular media players for download, today. It is installed by default on many Linux distributions, including Ubuntu Studio.
12. How to use a computer
Computers are operated by a user or users (a person or people who use the computer), by using input devices such as a mouse, touchscreen and keyboard. Navigating (moving to where you want to be) throughout the computer to complete tasks (actions), gives the user freedom to access and use many features and functions of the computer. A user can change settings of the hardware and software, write documents, store photos or send emails. Navigation skills allow users to utilise the full capacity of the computer: its capabilities and benefits that it provides. Trial and error may occur Page 52 /95
when training to use a computer, so it’s recommended to not change too many settings if you are a beginner. Over time, you can develop and improve new computer skills, giving you more knowledge of how to use the computer which will in turn, then increase your ability to do more things that you want to do on the computer and with the computer. The internet is the biggest source of openly available information medium today. You can search for how to fix a problem and investigate by yourself, the solution. Knowing what keywords to use in Find or Search functions, will give you the advantage of getting the answer quickly.
12.1.How to use a mouse and keyboard with a windows-style desktop computer or tablet
The use of a mouse and keyboard are the basic requirements for a user (person) to operate (use) a windows desktop computer or tablet. All operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, Apple Macintosh, Linux, Apple iOS and Android use a click or tap function operation to perform simple navigation and to complete tasks, such as: opening a folder or file, moving or copying a file or folder, opening an app or changing settings.
12.2. How to use a standard mouse
A modern standard mouse is typically made of a body (which fits into the palm of a person’s hand), a left-click button (located at the front of the mouse) and a right-click button (also located at the front of the mouse). A user moves the mouse body using their hand, which moves the mouse pointer to where a user (person) wants to perform some action, function or change some type of setting in the computer.
12.2.1. Moving the mouse pointer
The mouse pointer (typically the shape of a triangular-shaped arrow) is how a user (person) uses the computer: by moving the mouse pointer into the position where the user wants to perform some action. The mouse pointer is used for selecting a file or folder (by hovering the mouse pointer over the top of it [above it,]), navigating (moving) through a menu of options to ‘ get to’ a menu option which performs some function such as: to change a setting or open a program (app/application), selecting a file or folder (by clicking on a file or folder once [one time] using the left mouse or touchpad button), opening a file or folder by double-clicking on it, moving a file or folder by first selecting it with one click of the left mouse or touchpad button then holding down the left-click mouse or touchpad button and dragging it (the file or folder by dragging the mouse whilst holding down the left-click button) into the position where you want to move it to (relocate it to) or right click on a file or folder to perform secondary functions or actions. The mouse pointer is the main desktop file operating system feature, which people use to operate the computer, allowing them to do what they want.
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Most computer operations are conducted using the ‘Left-Click’ button on a mouse or touchpad.
1-click will select ANY file or folder, however, only Double-Clicking each file and folder will either open the file or that folder.
12.2.3.
Right Click
The Right-Click function (or feature) presents (gives) users options – as a listed menu of options.
Typical options include:
• Open: Open that file or folder
• Open in New Tab: Opens that file or folder into a New Tab.
• Open in New Window: Opens that file or folder into a new Window.
• Open With: Gives the user a selection of choices of how or with what you would like to open that file or folder with.
• Send To: This function gives the user options of sending that file or folder to another location, such as a USB drive, a DVD or their second drive (e.g. D Drive, E Drive or F
Drive). Basically this function allows a user to send any file or folder to another location, other than their OS drive location (which is usually the C Drive for MS Windows OS’s), however, they can also be sent there.
• Cut: Ctrl + X = remove that file or folder
• Copy: Ctrl + C = copy that item, which can be ‘pasted’ (Ctrl + V) into another location.
• Paste: Ctrl + V = paste a file or folder into a folder or location.
• Move to Trash: Move that selected file or folder into the trash for Deletion (Empty, Erase or Delete).
• Rename: This is a valuable feature, which allows the user to ‘rename’ the file or folder to a new name. Very handy!
• Create Archive: Gives the user the option of compressing that file or in particular, a folder, a compression format such as .zip. This means that the file or folder is ‘crushed’ or compressed into a smaller size, which is particularly useful for minimising storage or sending via email (good for saving space or size).
• Find/Search in this Folder: Ctrl + F. This function gives the user the option of being able to search inside that folder (directory) for any particular words (keywords) that are used within a file or folder or the actual name of a file or folder, with search results showing the exact location of each file or folder that contains those keyword search requests.
• Properties:
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▪ Name: The name of the file.
▪ Kind: What type of file that it is, such as a PDF or Text document, MP4 Movie file etc.
▪ Location: This is the exact location of the file.
▪ Modified: This is the date when the file was modified (changed).
▪ Accessed: This is the date when the file was opened, but not changed; or changed.
▪ Size: This is the size of the file in Kilobytes, Megabytes or Gigabytes.
◦ Folder:
▪ Folder properties are similar to file properties, however, they have extra security functionality, including ‘ permissions.’
Permissions are an important feature of computer, file, folder, smartphone or app security, because they permit (allow) or deny (do not allow) access to users or groups. Basically, permissions are split into (divided into) Users and Groups.
▪ Groups have members. Members are Users.
▪ You can grant access or deny access permissions for Users or Groups.
▪ If a User is a member of a Group and the Group has permissions to access a file or folder, then ALL members (Users) of that particular group, can access those files and/or folders.
12.3. How to use a standard touchpad (notebook/laptop) Using the touchpad is exactly the same as using a wired or wireless mouse, except instead of using the body of the mouse to move the mouse pointer around to the user’s desired position, you use your finger to move the mouse pointer by sliding it or dragging it around the rectangular area of the flat 2-dimensional touchpad area, inside the border of the touchpad (drag and lift your finger repeatedly, to where you want the mouse pointer to be).
12.4. How to use and ‘ get around’ (navigate) the computer 12.4.1.
File Explorer (Navigation)
In every computer that uses a typical desktop file operating system, there is a file explorer. This feature allows the user or users to store, create, copy, move, delete (remove) and navigate throughout the file system. This hierarchical structure is the same as a physical filing cabinet, but in a virtual computing environment. It functions in the same manner: i.e. (that is), the main filing cabinet is the file explorer of the computer, then inside of the filing cabinet are sliding draws Page 55 /95
containing folders and then inside each folder are documents (also known as ‘files’).
12.4.2. Main Menu/Applications/Programs/Accessories/Utilities/Settings Every GUI (graphical user interface) computer contains a main menu, from where you can access separate sub-menus, including: applications (also called apps or programs), accessories, utilities and settings.
1. Applications/Programs
This is where all of your apps (also known as applications or programs) are stored.
2. Accessories
Accessories are small programs/apps that perform important functions when you need to do certain tasks, such as write something quickly or use a calculator to ‘ crunch’ some numbers. Some examples of typical software accessories, include:
• Calculator: do all the calculations you need easily on your computer
• Character Map: useful for using all kinds/sorts of different keyboard characters.
• Notepad/Mousepad: useful for writing things quickly in a text document file (document.txt).
Text files (.txt files) are compatible with virtually all computer software systems and can be read easily. They are the simplest form of a document and can be opened, read, written to and saved easily!
• Font manager: to select and arrange the fonts (text styles) that you want.
• Notes: similar to sticky note, this accessory allows you to write sticky notes on your computer, just like the paper type, digital.
• Screenshot: take a snapshot (picture/photo) of your screen using this handy accessory that you can save as different picture format types. For example a .jpeg or .gif image file.
• Task manager: stop and start running apps as well as monitor running tasks currently in operation by the computer. You can view the amount of processor use that each app is using as a total percentage of the processor’s performance ability/capacity (e.g. 1% processor power useage).
3.
Utilities
In utilities, you will find a list of utilities (mini software programs) that can perform system and device tasks and; display information and data about your device. Backup and Restore may be in this section.
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Settings
This is where you alter your system settings, so be careful!
12.5. How to change settings in the computer
When you make changes to your computer hardware and software, you are entering the zone of
‘ you are on your own, ’ so to speak. Making changes or altering the system is a risky activity, because of the risk of damaging something and not being able to reverse the situation.
Therefore, the general pubic tend to hire computer technicians to perform the task of configuring technological devices. All of the options are available for the user to change almost everything to do with your computer. Networking, connecting, watching visually or listening phonetically using audio, printing etc. - your machine can be useful for so many things. At first, fax machines were popular, then ISDN, then dial-up modem, then cable, fibre-optic and now high speed mobile and satellite connections as well as a more secure WiFI, with faster speeds.
12.5.1. Changing the desktop
The desktop comes under the modern setting name of ‘Appearance.’ It kind of makes sense as a new and modern name, because people know what appearance means – it means, what something looks like, hence the name Appearance. In there, you change almost anything that is visually built-in to the desktop system. Font size, Folder size and arrangement, Menus, Colours, Layouts and Designs (Themes), Change Desktop Background Picture, etc. can all be altered in the Appearance section.
13.
The Internet
Invented during the 1960’s in North America and first used by the U.S. Military, the internet has driven technology throughout the world as the first major breakthrough in digital communications since satellite T.V. (television).
Its expansion has spread across the globe, reaching virtually most areas of the populated world.
Speed in the beginning was very slow, but accelerated as connection speeds increased which greatly sped up all online activities across all devices.
The internet can be thought of as a set of nodes that are all connected together, where each node is a computer or device on the internet network.
IANA (the Internet Assigned Number Authority) control and administer domain names in North America for the entire world.
This means that every domain name is registered through them via their country registrar if they have a state owned service, otherwise all registration control is overseen by IANA.
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The internet began in the United States of America including the domain name service (DNS) and associated protocols.
Many people hire a business to do all of their internet work for them, because in some instances, it requires technical skills. On average, many people may not have the expected skill level to accomplish the task of going online for personal or business purposes.
Having a website or app running full-time may become costly, depending on your budget.
Maintaining a website, email account or app can be quite time-consuming as well as costly, for the owner.
Ownership is governed in this order:
1. IANA USA,
2. Your local country’s state authority.
13.2.
Domain Names
Domain names were originally any website name such as www.example.com which demanded a yearly fee, passed onto your local country domain name authority where you can choose, select and
pay for your desired domain name e.g. www.mywebsite.com.
Ownership is governed in this order:
1. IANA
2. Your local country’s state authority
13.3. Websites
www, also known as the ‘ world-wide-web,’ is the prefix to the actual domain name mywebsite.com for use on the web server, however aliases began to be used – basically removing the www from
www.mywebsite.com to only require mywebsite.com to be typed into the internet browser’s address bar field. So instead of typing in www.google.com, we only need to type in google.com and press the Enter key on your device.
13.4. Internet Browsers
Internet or web browsers (as they were originally called), are what you need to view web pages such as mywebsite.com. It is a graphical interface for you to view a web page online and downloads words, documents, pictures and videos for you to look at locally on your desktop computer, tablet or smartphone. Any web site such as YouTube.com streams compressed videos to your device using either a browser or an app. Traditionally, internet browsers were how you viewed multi-media Page 58 /95
content on the internet. Some of that media includes text (letters with different fonts), pictures (images) and videos. Of course the speed of streaming has increased and as a result higher definition videos have evolved into high-speed and high-quality streamed video whether it’s downloadable or not (only streamed – downloaded in parts as custom file types, which may not be easily viewable or joined together to be watched later).
13.4.1. Menus
A typical menu would contain a list of selection options or features including: new tab, new window, new private window, history, downloads, bookmarks, zoom, print, find, edit, settings, help and exit. Let’s go over these options to explain what they are and what they do.
1. New Tab
A tab is a window within a window – this means that you can switch/swap/tab across to a new child window pane within the main parent window quickly-it’s as if you can flick quickly between websites in a single window (multiple windows within one window). Tabs are a relatively new addition to internet browsers and browsing. Prior to this, people had a stack of windows open and it was easy to get lost in navigation to where you were or wanted to be!
The introduction of tabs gave users a quick and neat browsing experience on the internet.
It is certainly a very useful feature of modern browsers.
2. New Window
A window is similar to that of a window on your computer, smartphone or tablet in that it is the main container used for viewing content within the program, software or app.
Windows were created first and tabs second, along the timeline of browser development.
Prior to the New Tab feature, there was only the New Window option, which meant that users would create a pile, stack or layer of browser windows, within the program.
3. New Private Window
The internet got flooded with browser tracker files such as cookies that allowed a website to record certain information according to local guidelines from your internet browser browsing session.
The new ‘Private’ Tab, Window or Browsing session gives users the option of browsing the internet without any tracking cookies (see below) or other temporary files that are a part of standard browsing methods. Basically what this means, is that almost every internet browser now offers: 1) Standard internet browsing, where your browsing is ‘tracked’; and 2) Private internet browsing, where your browsing is not ‘tracked’.
4. Cookies
Cookies are used to store data for the website session or according to the browser settings - that is, users can change the cookie settings in the Settings section within the File menu of the browser.
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Cookies can record and transmit:
• Your name, address, country, telephone number, email addresses
• Your IP Address
• The time and date of logging on to their websites
• Activity on their websites (actions such as page navigation, data input, downloads and uploads)
5. History
This is basically a list of all the URL’s or website pages that you have visited in chronological order for fast referencing. They are listed in time or date order.
6. Downloads (folder)
Most browsers have a Downloads menu option which is usually a direct link to your computer, smartphone or tablet’s Downloads folder on your device.
7. Bookmarks (folder)
The bookmarks folder is usually stored in a location inside the main application’s folder, such as Chrome, Firefox or Opera etc. You may have to search your system or disk to find the location of this folder. This is useful for when you want to export or import all or some of your bookmarks.
8. Zoom
To zoom in or out of any tab, window or page, simply hold down the 'Shift + Ctrl' keys and then press either '+' to zoom in (make it bigger) or press '-' to zoom out (make it smaller).
9. Print
To print any tab, window or page, simply press the 'Ctrl + P' keys on your keyboard to print the document using a printer or to save it in the PDF document file format (e.g. fileA.pdf). You can do this by pressing on the drop-down menu list of printers, which allows you to change printers.
10. Find
To find any words within a tab, window or page, simply press the 'Ctrl + F' keys to search for words.
11. Edit
Cut, Copy and Paste are the 3 editing functions.
To copy any highlighted (selected) text, file or folder, simply press the 'Ctrl + C' keys to copy the selection(s).
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To paste any highlighted (selected) text, file or folder, simply press the 'Ctrl + V' keys to paste the selection(s).
To cut any highlighted (selected) text, file or folder, simply press the 'Ctrl + X' keys to cut (remove temporarily – send to the clipboard) the selection(s).
12. Settings
In the settings sub-menu, there are many options to control and manage your browser.
This includes: your passwords, usernames, cached temporary files, cookies, auto-fill data and layout/design settings such as font type, font size, ad blocking, language, time zone or region etc..
In Settings, you can empty your cache – which may fix some problems with websites not loading correctly or plugins and extensions which are not working correctly. This may be called ‘Clear Browsing Data,’‘Clear the Cache’ or ‘Clear History.’
Privacy and security settings can be manipulated in here. There are also extensions, add-ons and plugins. All of these things help you obtain extra features and multimedia (audio and video) capabilities to have a richer and more interactive experience.
13. Help
Most software/apps/programs tell you about the version number in the help menu. Go to Help/About "App Example" and there it will tell you the version number of the app/program/software that you have installed on your device.
14. Exit
If you press ' Exit,' the browser program will close.
13.4.2. HTML
Hyper Text Markup Language, known as HTML, was the invention of the internet language that made web pages visible to the human eye. HTML is a software language used in internet web browsers or ‘browsers’ and servers to display mixed content, link sites, email, receive information in forms submitted and work with plugins and extensions to provide a highly enjoyable user experience for the person browsing the ‘net’ (internet) in a browser on their device.
HTML was first developed by Professor Tim Berners-Lee around 1991. HTML was to develop into HTML5, as it is today. Probably the most valuable feature is the new support of audio and video files - they can now be embedded by using the code in the HTML to embed the file, so that users can listen to audio and watch videos in any web browser.
Smartphones have internet browsers, however most people use apps-which use a different language to HTML.
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HTML5 brought a new platform which could play audio and video. This was a game-changer for HTML and user interaction. People can hear and watch sound and video files in any modern browser that supports HTML5.
Supported Audio Formats
• mp3
• ogg
• wav
Supported Video Formats
• mp4
• webm
• ogg
13.4.3. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
Websites are usually made of HTML and CSS, which enables webpages to display content that is visually appealing, rich full of features. CSS allows for formatting of text within a webpage using HTML. It uses a style, which can be edited (changed) to alter properties such as font type, font size, font alignment, background colours etc.
It really acts as a template for how text and colours appear on a webpage or website, much the same as a Document Editor, such as LibreOffice Writer.
13.4.4. Plugins
Plugins were part of the evolution of modern browsers, after HTML.
Early plugins included Macromedia’s Flash and Shockwave Flash back in the 1990’s.
Adobe’s PDF (Portable Document Format) viewer plugin emerged for internet browsers, produced by Adobe. This plugin is used to open and view .pdf files within a browser tab or window.
Plugins became popular with multimedia software companies who developed such products.
HTML5 changed the requirement for use of a plugin, as it supports all modern multimedia formats.
13.4.5. Extensions
Extensions were the next phase or stage in browser development before the introduction of HTML5. They are more like an individual piece of software within the browser itself.
Software developers took advantage of the extension market for browsers and now there are extension stores, much like there are app stores. You can access the extension stores within browsers, by often going to: Settings/Extensions and then access the extension store that way.
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Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds, are basically a type of subscription XML file that contains code which displays the latest news from a particular website, company or information service.
Feeds are continually update live (similar to real-time), which is why they are called ‘feeds.’
A similar word for a feed is stream, although this word is usually used to describe audio and video (multimedia), as opposed to text.
RSS Feeds are available by using an Internet Browser which already has or supports the Plugins or Extension for RSS Feeds. These days, RSS Feed Apps are available for Android, iPhone, Linux, Windows and MacOS.
13.6. IP Addresses
The IP address is either a 32-bit version, which is four (4) x sets of numbers, separated by a dot (.) For example: 192.168.1.0
The number range for each set contained by a decimal point, is 0-255 (256 numbers). This is called IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4).
Typical WiFi Router IPv4 Address Administration Logins would be: 1) 192.168.1.1; or 2) 10.0.0.1
The new IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) uses a 128-Bit address, making it very expandable.
IPv6 has many more times the amount of addresses available.
An example of an IPv6 address is 2001:db8::8a2e:370:7334
The total number of IPv6 addresses possible is 2128 which is 340 trillion trillion trillion IP addresses!
This is the reason that the decision to use both numbers and letters would be used to cope with the ever-increasing number of devices requiring an address.
13.7. Symbols and Characters used
Possibly the most commonly used character since the invent of the internet, is the ‘@’ symbol, (pronounced / at/) used in every email, yet the hash-tag symbol ‘#’ is widely used in social media these days across several big platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter and others.
Symbols and special characters play a big role in accessing sites, services or features in 2023.
13.8. Protocols and Ports
The internet can be seen as a multitude of protocols and ports, in a nutshell.
But it can become very complex and knowledge of configuring such intricate systems can be a daunting task even at the best of times.
A protocol is a type of code in the software that connects to machines and devices that use the same protocol. Some examples include: http, https, smtp, pop3 and ftp.
A port is like a tunnel with a number in the range of 0-65,535 ports. Protocols can use ports to connect out to a WAN such as the internet.
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Hyper Text Transfer Protocol was developed in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee.
Each web browser contains the http and the https protocol to enable connection to a website for browsing it.
This is the standard protocol for using the internet that every internet browser contains – the basic http protocol. A URL (Universal Resource Locator) is any webpage address location, such as: https://www.wikipedia.org/ or any other page location within a domain name website.
For example (e.g.), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine This webpage is contained within a website, with a URL or https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine.
So, in other words, each website has webpages with unique locations, or separate URL's.
13.8.2. HTTPS
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure was developed for encrypted connections to scramble the data which transfers between two (2) devices, allowing for safe data transfer, such as for banking online.
HTTPS uses TLS or SSL to secure a browser connection between two devices over the internet or network.
HTTPS uses port 443.
https://website.com would use the secure https protocol with port 443.
13.8.3. URL
A Universal Resource Locator, is any website page’s address location.
A typical URL would look something like this:
http://www.example.com/page1.html
13.8.4. TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) is the software technology which connects websites to websites. It is the most commonly used type of data connection and transfer today. Each time you connect or open a website, the TCP utility built into the network settings in your computer, transfers data (pictures and words etc.) to your device (computer, tablet or smartphone).
TCP and UDP are the types of Internet Protocol that can be used to transfer data over the internet.
13.8.5. UDP
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is used for data transfer more than web browsing, such as TCP.
It is used for fast data transfers such as large file downloads.
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13.8.6. IP (Internet Protocol)
IP is the software technology that connects you to the internet. It is used to transmit packets of data from one connected machine to another connected machine on the internet and also acts as an addressing service for connected machines (devices) on the world-wide-web or internet network (the internet).
13.8.7. IP Address
An IP address or an Internet Protocol address is a set of numbers and letters that identifies your internet connection on the global network. It is one system, with each device having its own unique address. Hiding your IP address using a VPN, private browser and other tunneling techniques can hide your address or create a different address which prevents tracking and secures privacy to a limited degree. Be aware, that authorities, still have the power to investigate any internet activity through any company throughout the world (unless you really know what you are doing, then they shall not find you).
13.8.8. FTP
File Transfer Protocol was created by Abhay Bhushan and introduced for use on the internet in 1971. It allowed for uploading and downloading of files and folders over the internet using its own separate protocol channel with user access to folders and files, which are able to be locked using an authorised username and password. Ftp client software became a popular means of transferring data over the internet, securely using a username and password, with security protocols and variants, ensuring a secure connection and transfer of information online.
13.8.9. FTPS
File Transfer Protocol Secure was created by using SSL technology. FTPS servers and client software used SSL to secure the connection and make the transfer of information using encryption technology.
13.8.10. POP3
Post Office Protocol v3.0 has been around a long time and is still the main technology used for receiving emails across the world. You can configure your email client software settings for accounts: incoming POP3 servers to match your hosting domain. E.g. pop3.mymail.com on port 110.
13.8.11. SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, first developed at some stage during the 1960’s and is still also the number one mail sending protocol today. Currently there are 333.2 billion emails sent per day across the world. That is a lot!
You can configure your email client software settings for accounts using these settings: outgoing SMTP servers to match your hosting domain. E.g. smtp.mymail.com on port 25.
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Secure Shell protocol is used to transfer files and folders across the internet from a SSH client to a remote login SSH server. It operates using a key authentication system.
13.8.13. SSL
Secure Sockets Layer was invented by Netscape Communications. It used digital certificates to authenticate and encrypt the connection securely between two (2) devices using an internet browser over the internet. SSL went to version 3.0 before being replaced by TLS.
13.8.14. TLS
Transport Layer Security was created in 1999 as the new and more secure version of SSL. The current version is 1.3 as of 2023. It offers stronger encryption security and sophistication using a pseudo-random master password utility.
13.8.15. Encryption
Encryption is the process of using the science of cryptography to ‘hide’ or ‘code aka encode’ data so that it is unreadable to any user or device which does not have one of the keys. Two (2) keys are required to encrypt and decrypt (decode) the data over the internet or network.
1.
DES
Encrypted keys began back in 1977 at IBM, when they released the first data cryptography encryption key system called Data Encryption Standard (DES). It was 56-bit encryption standard.
2.
AES
The next standard to be released was AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) in 2001 by the U.S.
National Institute of Standards and Technology, which delivered 128, 192 and 256-bit key sizes.
3.
RSA
Rivest-Shamir-Adleman is a cryptographic system that contains a public encrypted key and private decryption key. It was developed in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman.
Following AES, came RSA which is still in use today. RSA has up to a 2048-bit key size, making it virtually uncrackable. To ‘crack’ a code, is to decrypt it, which means that you can read and copy the data.
13.8.16. VPN
A Virtual Private Network is a relatively secure way of using the internet to avoid intrusion, monitoring or data theft. If used with secure tunneling protocols, your internet connection will be virtually unreadable by anyone between your device and the website or online device that you are visiting, as well as links that you browse. In other words by using a VPN and secure tunneling, nobody can detect what you are doing online (unless you use a paid VPN subscription service, in Page 66 /95
which case, the staff can view your browsing sites and traffic, making it extremely valuable for privacy and avoiding online attacks with infections or destructive actions to your device(s).
In China, if you wish to use popular internet services such as Facebook, YouTube, Google etc.,then you must subscribe to a VPN service. Alegedly, most of these VPN service providers are run (operated) by the Chinese authorities anyway, so basically it’s a pay-to-use service, whereby if you want to use these sites, you can so long as you subscribe to one service company and pay the monthly or yearly fee.
13.8.17. VoIP
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a modern internet telephone, whereby a LAN ethernet cable from a WiFi modem router is plugged into an ethernet port at the back of the VoIP phone to allow you to make normal phone calls locally or internationally through a VoIP service provider. This allows for cheap phone calls over the internet.
13.8.18. Web Portal
A web portal is simply a website login page that gives users access to information such as company intranet information locally, or data remotely. This is very convenient for employees or organisations who can access information from data stored in local or remote databases which are stored either locally or remotely, or for users in community forums and open-source online communities who exchange information freely within the group online for registered users to access through the web portal. Basically this means that a web portal is a login webpage for people to access information from anywhere.
Companies, governments and organisations benefit from using web portals, because it means that staff or users can securely access information from within an internet browser anywhere with an internet connection.
13.9. Security and Privacy
13.9.1. Security
Security refers to the protection of your device and your data.
Computers undergo vicious attacks that can either cause you great pain in terms of potentially costing money and time, as well as being an inconvenience, which you don’t really need.
Recommendations are to have a firewall installed and operating such as in an Internet Security software package for your type of operating system. Some popular programs available for various popular (commercial) operating systems are available for download from their website.
Some of these include: kaspersky.com, 360totalsecurity.com, avg.com, eset.com, avast.com, norton.com, comodo.com and avira.com, These packages combine detection, removal of viruses and repair of infected files on your device, to keep you protected as well as (if possible), clean/repair/fix any corrupted or infected files in your system. Usually these anti-virus applications come in the form of a monthly or yearly subscription. Windows computers are the most vulnerable Page 67 /95
to computer virus infection, because of how widespread this commercial OS is across the world today, but also according to technical experts because Windows is a less-secure OS than unix style OS’s. Some technicians talk about the ‘holes’ in Windows, which means that people can hack into it across a network. Apple computers are somewhat at risk to security and privacy breaches. Linux computer operating systems are the least vulnerable to malicious attacks and infections of the three (3) operating systems.
1.
Firewall
Yes, it is most important that you install a firewall on your machine, to block any incoming connections from outside of your local network (LAN) and allow outgoing connections from your device and LAN to the internet outside (WAN).
Defending your device is essential to ensure a clean and fully functioning computer, tablet or phone.
Keeping unwanted access out of your device, will protect it from 'sniffing,' malicious or destructive activities, and data theft.
Ports
There are 65,536 ports available in a network connection (ports 0-65535), and choosing the ports you want open or closed, is important to fully understand how to use a firewall. Port ‘0’ is reserved by your OS for IP address functionality.
Action
Result
ALLOW (permit) incoming connections
permit incoming connections from a device on
the internet or network to YOUR device (not
recommended and potentially dangerous)
DENY (block) incoming connections
incoming connections are NOT permitted, with
no response to the attempting connecting device.
This means that all ports from 1 - 65535 are
BLOCKED from connecting to your device
from the internet or a network.
REJECT (block) incoming connections
incoming connections are NOT permitted, with a
response from your device to the attempting
connecting device, advising to it that it has been
rejected (not allowed {not permitted})
ALLOW (permit) outgoing connections
permit outgoing connections from YOUR device
to another device on the network or internet (this
option still has risks of devices transferring data
via your browser or other software to the
external {outside} device, hence acting as a
security risk)
DENY OUTGOING ports 1 - 79;
Do not allow (do not permit) ports 1 -79 to be
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open OUTSIDE;
DENY OUTGOING ports 444 - 65535
Do not allow (do not permit) ports 81- 442 to be
open OUTSIDE
Do not allow (do not permit) ports 444 – 65535
to be open OUTSIDE;
Ports 80 and 443 are the most commonly used
ports needed for a device. Port 80 is a web
browser connection port required by many
websites and the more popular and secure port
required by many websites is port 443 – the
Secure connection port.
Most email can be accessed in a web browser
using port 443, with no other ports required to
be open (such as gmail.com or outlook.com),
however some home or business users use a
desktop client. In this case, you will need to
allow port 25 to send emails (SMTP protocol)
[OUTGOING] and port 110 to receive emails
(POP3 protocol) [INCOMING].
Incoming Connections
Generally speaking, you want to BLOCK all incoming connections to your device, to protect it from online attack(s). BLOCK may also be referred to as REJECT or DENY (see the table above).
Some software, such as business or gaming software, may require you to OPEN an INCOMING
port, in order to allow the external server or device to talk to your client software (locally installed) or app.
Outgoing Connections
Generally speaking, you want to ALLOW outgoing connections from your device but only allow the ports out that you need to use, to protect it from online attack(s), device destruction or data theft (see the table above for how to setup OUTGOING connections, securely). So, you could ALLOW
OUTGOING connections and then BLOCK the ports that you do not wish to use. As stated above in the table, you want to allow outgoing connections for ports 80 and 443, then block the other ports. For example: ALLOW OUTGOING connections and BLOCK ports 1-79; 81-442; 444-65535. Web servers require port 8080 to also be enabled as a fallback port, if port 80 is overloaded.
Be Aware! that some websites or apps may require access into your computer, smartphone or device through your firewall or security software into a SPECIFIC PORT. For example, A piece of gaming software requires open access to TCP/IP Port 60,053. So, you open Port 60,053 IN and OUT of your device/OS, via the firewall.
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The internet has brought society great joy through networking and communications – in particular, with family and friends. People continue to advance through their lives using the internet, but it comes at a cost or price, because to stay safe and secure, it costs resources which are usually time and/or money. Defending your valuables online is an important issue, because it can be compromised if the person either has changed something or the computer was never set up correctly from purchase, to defend against attacks, theft, damage and destruction.
This section is divided into: internet connections, detection, repair and/or removal of viruses and monitoring for any potential attacks in the future.
It is important to clear your internet cache, history, cookies and other files regularly and is recommended to be completed often, in order to maintain a fast operating browser application with less chances of a slowly operating computer. The more 'junk' files that you store in your internet browser or operating system, the slower your machine will be. Also, be aware that the more applications that you have installed, the slower the computer will operate at. Therefore, clearing or cleaning your OS and browser(s) of temporary files is a good maintenance habit to get in to.
13.10. Building a Website
Making a website these days can be done in three (3) ways: 1. Online using pre-made templates from a website seller and may offer the option of buying your own domain name (such as mywebsite.com), email addresses, security certificates for secure e-commerce websites;
2. Make your own website using a template from the thousands available online for sale. There are many website template styles out there today, such as Wordpress, Joomla, etc.; or 3. Write your own HTML code in a document editor.
E-commerce websites involve more design, layout and interactivity than just a simple website such as a blog or company website providing information, mostly in the form of text and images.
E-commerce websites are online shops, that sell physical or digital goods and/or services from a website. Therefore, they use credit card payment processing services, incorporated into the site, from a 3rd-party company.
The things you will need to make your own website:
1. A domain name, which is paid to a Domain Name Registrar company every 1, 2, 5 or 10
years.
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2. A hosting https web server or service that leases you space to store your website on a monthly or yearly basis.
3. An Email server or service where you store your email addresses and administer them.
4. For e-commerce, you will need a credit card payment gateway service and a TLS (SSL) secure certificate to use the https protocol in order to securely connect and communicate online when using your website.
13.10.1. Content Management System (CMS)
Content management systems are websites, specially designed for managing information such as text, images and videos on a website. The most popular CMS's are those written using the PHP
computer scripting language. PHP is a server scripting language, which provides dynamic content.
The most popular PHP CMS's include : Drupal, Joomla and Wordpress. These are all CMS's which use the file extension .PHP for active dynamic content.
13.11.
QR Codes
QR codes (Quick Response codes) are the new way to scan objects for sending and receiving payments, sending website links or transferring data in some other secretive way. Each QR code is unique, that is to say – they are all different, like telephone numbers. They are similar to barcodes, used on product item labels, to identify each product uniquely (solely) that is matched up to a product description and price, stored on a computer system.
QR codes are the new modern style of barcode – they can be used to do many things including: shopping, downloading apps or opening websites.
13.12. Cryptocurrencies
Cryptocurrencies are digital currencies, or digital money.
Digital money has been around since the 1980’s, however it was the digital currency called Bitcoin, that really took off and became popular instantly around the world. Bitcoin, or BTC as it is officially known in the banking and financial sector industries, was created by a Japanese man in 2009. Today there are BTC ATM’s (Automatic Teller Machines) and people trade online using Bitcoin everyday over the internet. You can use Bitcoin to purchase things online or trade in Bitcoin, the same as official national currencies such as the Chinese Yuan, Russian Rubles or Australian Dollars. People can buy, sell and trade cryptocurrencies using a cryptocurrency exchange website or app. You may need to supply a photo of your government identification documents, such as a passport or drivers licence and even a utility bill. Once verified and/or approved, you will be able to generate or be supplied with a Wallet Address, which is basically the same as a bank account number. So, you use your cryptocurrency wallet address to buy and sell products online or to trade in cryptocurrencies in order to make a profit. You may also need or wish to use digital encryption Page 71 /95
technologies in order to use the service, depending on the exchange or service/platform that you use.
13.13. Email
13.13.1. Types
There are basically two (2) types of email:
1. Client email: this is where you install a program or app onto your device and configure it manually (or automatically) to login to your email server which allows you to send and receive emails. Configuring the client software sets up an email account on your device (computer, tablet or phone). Ports must be set correctly, i.e. the Incoming (receiving) POP3
port must be set to Port 110 and the Outgoing (sending) SMTP port must be set to Port 25.
These are both unencrypted ports. POP3 has an encrypted port: Port 995 (if the email server that you go through {typically your ISP [Internet Service Provider] or other email server}
has this functionality).
2. Webmail: This is where a user can access their email online using a web browser. It uses TLS or SSL technologies (basically digital certificates, which you can also make yourself free). So, the concept is that you open a web browser and then type in the domain name of your email server hostname into the address bar of your browser with a ‘mail’ prefix. For example: mail.mydomain.com
This will then present you with a new login screen with the fields: Username and Password.
Of coarse, this page is encrypted using security certificates. Enter your details, to access your online email account.
13.13.2. Composing an email (How to make an email)
There are several fields in an email and understanding what they are, how to use them and what they stand for are all important to fully understand which features that you may have in your email account, whether online in a web browser or accessing your email through a client.
1.
To: field
This is who the email is going to. This is where you enter the person’s, company’s or server’s email
address(es) into the field. For example: JohnnyX@email.com
2.
Cc: field
Cc stands for Carbon Copy. Here you can enter the email address(es) to send the receiver(s) a copy of the email and/or attachments also.
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Bcc: field
Bcc means Blind Carbon Copy. Basically this means that anyone with an email address added into the Bcc field will receive the email from the sender without the other people knowing that the Bcc recipient has received the email, from the people with email addresses who are also receiving the email in the To or Cc fields. For example:
To: JohnnyX
Cc: MaryY
Bcc: VladimirZ
Mary does not know that Vladimir received the email also, but Vladimir knows that Mary received the email.
4.
Insert Attachment
The paperclip symbol is how/where you attach a file to your email(s). Select Insert/Attachment/Files from your computer then navigate to where the images, pictures, videos or documents are and press the button, ‘Select’ or ‘Upload.’
5.
Send an email
To send an email, first check that it is all complete and ready to send, especially if you need to or have to send an attachment with the email. When you think you are ready, press the Send button.
14.
Networking and Communications
Since the first discovery of connecting computers, networks have expanded in size and capability, considerably. In particular, networking speeds have increased dramatically, such that streaming internet data for many devices at high-speeds, is now possible. 30 years ago, this wasn't the case.
Transmitter and receiver hardware has grown exponentially, such that there are virtually no limitations in transfer speeds, including new wireless technologies which can transfer data at 2.5
terabits per second.
14.1.
Networking
14.1.1. WAN and LAN
There are two (2) types of networks:
1. WAN: Wide Area Network
2. LAN: Local Area Network
Wide Area Networks are large or global networks such as an organisation or the internet.
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Local Area Networks are smaller, ‘in-house’ or localised networks, such as inside an office or at home. Routers at your home or office, typically contain a LAN, with IP addresses allocated to the client who connects to the network via authentication and/or administration.
1.
WAN
A WAN is called a Wide Area Network. WAN’s can be a company’s network of LAN’s in five (5) cities across the country, as an example. The whole wide connection of each city’s office makes it a WAN. The internet itself is an example of a WAN.
2.
LAN
A LAN is called a Local Area Network, usually administered at a central point such as your home WiFi modem router using a web browser to access the router and administer network access for devices onto the LAN. A LAN can also be created and administered on a server to allow users to access the local network. LAN’s can connect to other LAN’s over an internet connection.
14.1.2. Internet
The internet is one big wide area network and allows users to 'network' or connect to resources in storage and to access services online that are accessible using the internet. Server technology and standalone devices such as firewall rack units and networking gear including modems and routers with wireless capabilities all connect to the internet in some way. Secure connection methodologies make connecting more secure and permits private connections remotely over physical distances.
1. VPN's & Secure Tunneling Technologies
Security matters! When using technology, the internet and networks, it is important to maintain some type of security. Any man-made object can be broken and such, so is live online information –
it is breakable. In other words, using certain technologies can prevent you from any damage and avoid a situation that you do not want to be in. Damage can be in the form of time, money or resources and those things may be costly!
So therefore, it is a topic which should be considered as something serious in the computing world.
VPN's are Virtual Private Networks and allow for point-to-point connections over public networks, usually using encryption. If you use a VPN, this will allow you to bypass restricted or blocked internet services and/or websites.
VPN's come in commercial and open-source versions, depending on what you require or can manage. Paid software has its benefits and its pitfalls. Ease-of-use is convenient for the average user, but the sacrifice is that you have to send to the VPN provider company, some type of identification, which means that you are not 100% invisible. Creating your own VPN server in another country, is more private unless you have to provide credit card or other identifiable information which could potentially allow a government authority to investigate any online activities under your name. So be aware of this risk. If the activity is in a country which has no legal jurisdiction over your country where you are logging in from, then there is very little chance that any prosecution could ever take place.
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The commonly used VPN tunneling technologies are listed in this section.
SSH
SSH stands for Secure Shell. SSH is an encrypted tunnel using the SSH protocol for online use.
It works by an SSH client piece of software which connects to an SSH server, using the tunneling SSH protocol to establish a connection to an SSH server.
L2TP
Layers 2 Tunneling Protocol, or, L2TP is used in conjunction with IPSec layer 3 protocol to secure the network transmission of information.
IPSec
IPSec is Internet Protocol Security which uses encryption to encapsulate (encode or hide) the packet of data transmitted through the tunnel.
SSTP (HTTPS protocol)
Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol is a VPN tunnel that uses SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) authentication with keys, encryption and data checking.
SSL
SSL is the Secure Sockets Layer and uses certificates along with TCP port 443 to secure connections and was invented by Netscape Communications in 1995 as a public release into its internet browser, 'Netscape.'
TLS
TLS, or, Transport Layer Security, uses cryptography by implementing certificates and other algorithms to tighten security and ensure no data leaks occur. TLS also uses TCP port 443.
14.1.3. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi (also known as, 'Wireless Fidelity") is registered as a trademark to the Wi-Fi Alliance, who certify authentic Wi-Fi functionality with their official certificates. It is used across the world in coffee shops, hotels, homes, offices and airports.
Wi-Fi is everywhere. These days, home WiFi is becoming an affordable standard. High-speed cable and/or fibre internet is the backbone for the WiFi service. WiFi LAN speeds have dramatically increased within the local WiFi network - allowing users to access the WiFi Modem Router, much quicker than before.
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IEEE 802.11 A/B/G/N/AC
Wi-Fi is categorised according to which bands they use. All Wi-Fi connections, are a part of the IEEE 802.11 standard.
Transfer speeds
Radio Frequency
Name
Standard
(Mbps = Megabits per
(Ghz = Gigahertz)
second))
Wi-Fi 7
802.11be
1376-46120
2.4/5/6
Wi-Fi 6E
802.11ax
574-9608
6
Wi-Fi 6
802.11ax
574-9608
2.4/5
Wi-Fi 5
802.11ac
433-6933
5
Wi-Fi 4
802.11n
72-600
2.4/5
Wi-Fi 3
802.11g
6-54
2.4
Wi-Fi 2
802.11a
6-54
5
Wi-Fi 1
802.11b
1-11
2.4
Wi-Fi 0
802.11
1-2
2.4
14.1.4. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a modern wireless technology using specific frequencies. It can be used to connect to a host device and transmit audio, video and provide internet connectivity. This type of connection is also called ‘ Bluetooth tethering,’ which is categorised under ‘ Mobile Hotspot and Tethering’ on mobile phones. Within that section, you will see the two (2) options: Bluetooth tethering and USB
tethering.
14.1.5. USB
Universal Serial Bus cables are hard-wired connections and can also provide internet connectivity.
This is particularly useful for notebooks (laptops), tablets or iPads so that they can connect to your mobile phone for internet access. As explained above in Bluetooth tethering, the USB tethering option is in the same section in/on your mobile phone, under Settings/Connections/Mobile Hotspot and Tethering.
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1. Cat 5e - 100 MHz Speed and Performance Cabling for LAN's
Category 5a, 5b & 5c were the industry standard in high-speed LAN network cabling systems of our time, in use from around the year 2000. They can transfer data at a rate of between 1-5 Gbps (Gigabits per second) up to a limited distance of 100 metres.
2. Cat 6a - 500 MHz Speed and Performance Cabling for LAN's
100 metres in length capability and the latest industry standard in fast networking, Cat 6 is faster and travels further in metres, than Category 5 series LAN networking cabling. It is used throughout offices, factories, governments and homes across the world. Category 6 ethernet cables can transfer data at a rate of 10 Gbps.
3. Fibre Optic
Fibre optic cable transfers data throughout cities in 2023 at speeds of between 1 - 400 Gbps.
FTTH or FTTP
FTTH stands for Fibre To The Home, which may also be called or known as FTTP (Fibre To The Premises). There are other similar acronyms, including: FTTB (Fibre To The Business) and FTTO
(Fibre To The Office). Basically, this is optic fibre cable that carries (transmits and receives) the internet to your home, business or office. The cable connects to the back of your WiFi router or standard router and provides internet services at high speeds to your location. Download and upload speeds are very fast, compared to other internet connection methods such as wireless (mobile) internet.
The transmission speed which is commercially available in 2023 may vary across the globe depending on which type of optic fibre technology that your country, province, state and telecommunications company provides at the present time. This could be anywhere between 1Gbps
- 1Tbps. In 2022, Japanese institute NICT (The National Institute of Information and Communications Technologies) claim to have developed speeds of 1.03 Terabits per second=1
Tbps, per channel (per FTTP) at a distance of up to 25.9km.
For further information on optic fibre cable, you can view this page:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication
4. RJ11 Telephone
RJ11 is an old standard in connectivity for telephones into socket walls and into the back of or underneath telephones. It contains 4 pins and is still the most commonly used as a world-standard for telephone connections. Both telephone cables with a plug and telephones with a socket, use the RJ11 plug/socket connectivity as the standard.
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RJ45 is the standard for LAN connections using Cat 5e and Cat 6a cabling.
These connectors use 8 pin plug and jack connectors for LAN (ethernet) connections coupled with Cat 5e or Cat 6a cabling.
14.1.7. Modems
Modems normally connect to the internet via a standard telephone line and connector (RJ11).
Copper wire telephone lines require a modem to connect to the internet. This means that dialup modems such as a 56k modem or ADSL/DSL/Broadband modems are required to connect to the internet.
14.1.8. Routers
A router is a device which allocates IP addresses to users who are logged into the LAN or WAN.
They have developed over the years to become more than just an IP address allocation service device - they have become a kind of all-in-one device, offering a firewall, port configuration tool, hacker detection, time zones, filtering and more. Modern routers are quite function-packed devices and are getting more and more full of features as technology improves. Once upon a time, a router was a separate device to an ADSL internet modem, but nowadays the WiFi box, modem and router are a 3-in1 single device box. Times have changed quite dramatically and WiFi modem routers are now cheap, fast and secure.
14.1.9. Hubs
A hub is a simple (or basic) version of a switch (see Switches below). A hub is a hardware device which has multiple RJ45 LAN Port sockets for computers to access a network such as a LAN.
Hubs are used for computers to connect together usually with ethernet cables, within a LAN.
14.1.10. Switches
Switches are sophisticated hubs, able to transmit data across multiple networks and can manage IP
connections (addresses) from connected networkable devices effectively and efficiently without dropouts or clashes on the network between devices, thereby allowing devices to stay connected to a network or networks (LAN or WAN) without connection problems. Therefore, switches are the preferred choice when selecting between a hub and a switch for a network, because they offer more network interoperability, flexibility and stability, allowing for better management of the network.
14.2. Communications
Communications have come a very long way since the 1800’s. From telegraph wires to satellite internet dishes – the hardware or equipment used to communicate, has changed considerably.
Wired to wireless is the evolution of communications during the past 250 years. Yes, it has changed tremendously already, however it may still change a lot more, in the future.
Communication quality has greatly improved in terms of: graphic resolution density; and the speed Page 78 /95
of delivery and retrieval. These are defined by modern technology such as a touchscreen, Bluetooth computer mice, keyboards, scanners and printers. So yes, communication infrastructure working alongside the localised technologies and peripheral gadgets surrounding your desktop, notebook, tablet or smartphone allow people to communicate in a modern way.
Satellites, mobile phone towers, Wi-Fi, USB, ethernet, fax, email, microphones and speakers are all ways in which we communicate by interacting using technology.
Things can be achieved using technology in our modern times. Technology allows us to perform fast communication tasks.
With the ease of wireless and the robustness of wired, we are gradually changing towards a
‘ wireless world. ’ Wireless technologies are increasing in speed and can now match wired or cabled speeds.
As Bluetooth sound systems become popular throughout the world, wireless microphones and speakers have emerged and are now widespread in 2023. This allows people to use wireless techniques to talk, chat, sing, play music, watch movies or download anything from the internet.
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14.2.1. Communication Information
Communication Variables
Technology
Wireless such as Mobile or Wi-Fi Uses Radio Frequency (RF)
1. Mobile Phone
1. 2G, 3G, 4G: 0.2-2.7 GHz;
5G: 3.3-4.2 GHz
2. W
i-Fi
2. 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
Satellite Radio Frequency
1. Mobile Phone: Radio Frequencies are 626.5
1. Mobile Phone
to 1660.5 MHz for the transmitter and 1525.0 to
2. GPS
1559.0 MHz for the receiver.
2. GPS:
• L1 Band: 1575.42 MHz with a 15.345
MHz bandwidth
• L2 Band: 1227.6 MHz with an 11 MHz
bandwidth
• L5 Band: 1176.45 MHz with a 12.5 MHz
bandwidth
WAN (Wide Area Network) – the internet
Optic fibre cable, telephone line cable and radio
outside
frequency using mobile phone tower
transmitters and receivers
LAN (Local Area Network) – your home or
The 2 radio frequencies used for WiFi are the
office WiFi Router
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands (as above)
Input method – touchscreen, keyboard or
3.5 mm Jack Socket Audio In/Out
microphone (mic)
Bluetooth – headsets, conferencing speakers and Radio Frequency 2.45 GHz entertainment systems (speakers, guitars etc.)
15. Fixing Problems and Repairs
15.1. Software (OS’s, Apps and Programs)
There is good news, you can fix it yourself! U-TECH explains for you, how to repair your computer from a corrupted filesystem, a virus attack, intrusion attack or malfunctioning OS such as Windows, MacOSX, Linux and Android or iOS smartphones and tablets.
This can be a frightening situation to be in, because the first reaction most people have is to panic and then potentially put the machine at even more risk of harm, by rushing into actions which may compromise your computer or other device, even more.
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Knowing what to do in a situation like this can be extremely difficult to manage, because it requires skills which enable the computer to be repaired to its original state, with files/documents/data unharmed.
Files, documents, pictures, photos, videos, movies and other items on your computer may be very important and irreplaceable, so it’s no surprise that people become very upset if there is a problem accessing them. Taking the correct steps in the correct order, ensure that the highest possible effort has been exerted to detect and remove malicious or unauthorised items on your computer, but also to block any further attempts to intrude and tamper or interfere with your privacy.
Common ways of becoming infected with malicious content includes: apps, programs and website clicks. Malware (malicious software) can steal information or destroy your computer so that it is inoperable and must be overwritten with a new OS. It should be noted that software can also alter, control or stop hardware.
15.2. Computers and Notebooks (Windows, Mac OSX and Linux) There are a number of steps to take in order to determine (troubleshoot) what is causing the software malfunction. IF YOU CAN, make a copy (backup) of your documents, pictures, music and videos etc. to an external drive BEFORE doing anything. If you cannot do this or have never made a copy of your files and you are worried that a reinstall of the OS option on some OS’s may not permit (allow) for your files to be untouched (deleted or erased – that is, they will be deleted/erased), then you can try using recovery software by attaching your infected or broken OS
from your device’s drive to another OS using a USB cable, which is working, to view and copy your files to a safe location which you can then transfer back (copy back) to your original computer, once the drive has been formatted and the OS reinstalled to be working as normal how it used to be before it got damaged.
Try these steps in this order to remove the malware and/or repair the computer.
1. Try uninstalling/removing any software which was recently installed that you may be suspicious of that could be potentially causing the problem(s).
2. Try using recovery options built-in to your manufacturers image on your disk from when you bought it. Note: some manufacturers of computers have reserved a certain volume or section of your hard drive or SSD to reinstall the OS to its original condition, however there may be two (2) options: - 1) reinstall a new OS over the top of your current infected OS, leaving your documents and files all in place as they were; or 2) install a new OS on your drive, which erases all of your data including your files such as documents, pictures, music and videos. *[CAUTION]: MAKE SURE TO BACKUP ALL OF YOUR DOCUMENTS,
PICTURES, MUSIC AND VIDEOS BEFORE YOU REINSTALL THE OPERATING
SYSTEM OR WIPE (ERASE - DELETE) THE HD (HARD DRIVE), SSD (SOLID
STATE DRIVE) OR USB EXTERNAL DRIVE.
This process is known as formatting the drive or ‘wiping the drive,’ which ultimately means erasing/deleting the contents of the hard drive inside the computer.
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The operating system is then installed, followed by any applications you wish to use.
Again, malfunctioning or dead hardware and software, can either be fixed or replaced. The first option of fixing hardware is usually much cheaper than the second option of replacing it, which is normally more expensive.
15.3. Android Smartphones and Tablets; iPhones and iPads These days, online backups are commonly used to copy the folders, files and even settings from your device up into ‘ the cloud’ (a storage server online at a remote location). Google, Apple and other manufacturers provide this facility to help keep a copy of a user’s data, in case of emergency.
Sometimes, we may need to empty or clear the Android OS system memory files which are stored inside your phone’s memory, as well as an app’s cache. To clear the memory, go to: Settings> Device Care> Memory and then press the ‘ Clean now’ button, to clear the memory files stored in your system.
To clear the cache of an app, press and hold down your finger on an app’s icon. You will then see 4
menu options: 1) Select items; 2) Remove from Home (this only removes it from one of your Home screens but does not uninstall the app from your phone.); 3) Uninstall (this does uninstall or remove the app from your phone.); and 4) App info. Press ‘ App info,’ then select ‘Storage’ and then at the bottom of the screen you will see two (2) buttons: 1) Clear data (this will remove all of your account information or any progress in an app such as a game, so BE CAREFUL to only press this, if you are wishing or intending to remove everything about the app); and 2) Clear cache. Press this button – ‘ Clear cache’. This will only remove temporary files, but will not interfere with any account or progress made or obtained within that particular app. Clearing the cache may fix some problems which you could encounter when using any app on a smartphone. The same applies to Apple iPhones and iPads.
iPhones and iPads are similar, just the same as Android smartphones and tablets are similar – i.e., they use the same operating system and app design structure. So, iPhones and iPads use iOS; and Android smartphones and tablets use Android OS.
15.3.1. Android Smartphones and Tablets
Smartphones and tablets can be reset to their factory settings ( WHICH WILL WIPE ALL DATA
AND RETURN THE PHONE TO HOW IT WAS WHEN IT WAS IN THE SHOP
**<CAUTION> ). If you cannot get your files that you need off the device, plug it into a computer using the USB cable, open the smartphone or tablet, then locate the ‘DCIM’ folder. All of your photos, videos, audio and data are stored in that folder. Copy the contents of this folder, to your computer. You can then reset the phone or tablet to its original state. If you are unable to find this folder or any of your files, they may have been deleted or moved, in which case, you should search the Google Play Store for an app to find, recover or dig up deleted files. If you cannot use your smartphone or tablet, you can try doing the same thing on a computer/notebook, by searching online for a program or an app to search for (find) or recover files from a hard drive/disk drive. After you install such software, you can run it and then select your smartphone or tablet as the hard drive, Page 82 /95
which you want to recover data from. The USB cable obviously needs to be attached to the computer or notebook, so that it can see and access your smartphone or tablet.
A simple and easy way to find and copy your files are to use an SD or MicroSD card, which many Android phones and tablets have. You can then copy them across to your computer or tablet, reset your smartphone or tablet back to its factory settings and then insert the SD or MicroSD card back into your phone and copy your files back onto your smartphone or tablet.
If you are still unable to find, recover or copy your files, you should seek technical advice from a technician.
Android phones and tablets can be reset to their original condition, by: 1. Turning off the phone.
2. Holding down the Volume Up, Volume Down and Power ON/OFF buttons (3 buttons together) all at the same time, using 3 fingers and then wait until the green Android robot appears on the screen. You are then presented with a terminal command line set of options.
Use the Volume Up and Volume Down keys to navigate to the option “RESET/RESTORE
DEVICE TO FACTORY/ORIGINAL SETTINGS.’
3. It will take up to about 30 minutes to reset your phone to its original state.
15.3.2. iPhones and iPads
Apple’s recovery system, is different to Android’s, in that resetting/restoring these devices back to their original factory settings, must be done by connecting a Macintosh computer or a computer running iTunes on it, to the iPhone or iPad using a USB cable to connect the two (2) together. See Apple.com for further details on how to recover or reset your system, including lost passcodes/passwords for your AppleID account.
See this article here - https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT211078
15.4. Hardware
Hardware that is malfunctioning, not working properly or appears broken may come as a shock for some people, who never expected for a physical part or component to be broken and that it doesn’t work.
Most man-made appliances or objects can and usually do break, need replacing or repair(s).
Any moving parts or parts that get hot are in the highest risk category that are likely to eventually over time or in a high-risk environment (hot rooms, dusty rooms, insect or pest infected areas), break! Most commonly, hard disk drives (HDD’s) which contain high-speed moving parts wear out, malfunction and need replacing.
HDD’s have a disk which spins at very high speeds, so naturally there will be ‘wear and tear.’
Next on the list are DVD drives. Their lens attached to the slot tray inside can become dirty and may require a clean with a soft cloth. The drive casing may have become unlocked from a notebook Page 83 /95
and you can pull it out. This could be caused by a missing screw or unlocked switch sliding button underneath the notebook.
15.4.1.
Disk Drives, Hard Disks and SSD’s
Hard drives can be removed from desktop and notebook computers or tablet devices. This is called
‘ removable.’ Media is commonly referred to as removable, such as, “… a removable USB drive.”
To remove a drive, unscrew the aligned plastic panel from underneath your notebook or tablet.
A tower or mini tower will have removable HDD’s or SDD’s, allowing them to be replaced, serviced or installed new.
15.4.2.
DVD Drives (Burners)
DVD drives, like DVD discs, have advanced over the years, superseding CD Drives and have developed into compact, thinly shaped removable (slotable) device players that universally fit into 2
main sizes: 1) desktop/tower/mini-tower standard size; and 2) notebook (laptop) streamlined standard size, which are removable by nature.
As with DVD discs, modern DVD players are able to burn data and rewrite it (erase, move, cut copy) to a disc at high speeds and have a Bluray version as well, capable of burning Bluray discs.
DVD drives can and do break through wear and tear; and as a result may need replacing or simply just cleaning the lense - which it uses to read and write data to a disc (just like reading glasses require cleaning).
Most computer repair retailers or wholesalers sell lense cleaning kits which include cleaning fluid and a cloth. If cleaning fails, DVD Slot modules (an actual DVD slot drive unit) can be replaced, by purchasing a new (recommended) or second-hand drive from a computer retailer or wholesaler.
15.4.3.
Memory
DDR RAM memory chips do break or need reseating through dislodgement or dust and particle buildup, caused by static or poor computer ventilation. Reseating is the process of removing the RAM memory chip and then putting it back in. *[CAUTION]: BEFORE ATTEMPTING TO
REMOVE A DDR RAM MEMORY CHIP, YOU MUST BE SITTING OR STANDING STILL
AND HAVE TOUCHED WITH YOUR SKIN, AN EARTHED METAL OBJECT, TO RELEASE
STATIC ELECTRICITY FROM YOUR BODY, WHICH CAN 'ZAP' THE CHIP AND
DESTROY IT. AFTER 'EARTHING' YOURSELF OR RELEASING THE STATIC
ELECTRICITY FROM YOUR BODY, THEN YOU CAN CAREFULLY REMOVE THE CHIPS
FROM THE MAINBOARD BY UNCLIPPING (UNLOCKING) THE CHIP USING THE
PLASTIC PRESSURE LOCKS PROVIDED ON THE MAINBOARDS FOR DDR RAM
MEMORY CHIPS (PRESS DOWN TO RELEASE THE LOCK, USING YOUR THUMB AND
MOVE THE LOCK SIDEWAYS), CLEAN THE MAINBOARD MEMORY SLOT BY BLOWING
AIR INTO THE SLOT/SOCKET OR BY USING PURE ALCOHOL CLEANING FLUID AS
WELL AS WIPING/CLEANING THE GOLD CONTACT CONNECTOR BARS ALONG THE
BASE OF THE RAM CHIP ITSELF AND THEN GENTLY AND CAREFULLY RESEAT THE
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CHIP(S) ONTO THE MAINBOARD, BY LOCKING THEM INTO PLACE WITH THE
PLASTIC LOCKS ON THE MAINBOARD PROVIDED (PRESS THE LOCK DOWN WITH
YOUR THUMB AGAIN, MOVE THE LOCK SIDEWAYS AND THEN ALIGN IT WITH THE
CHIP, SO THAT IT LOCKS THE CHIP DOWN INTO PLACE.
If after cleaning the mainboard, slots and chips, there is still a memory error, you should purchase new memory chip modules and discard the old one(s).
15.4.4. Cards and Slots
As with DDR RAM memory chips and slots, the same rules above apply for the trouble-shooting (fault-finding) or diagnosis in order to find out what the problem is with the card, slot or chip, inserted into your computer or notebook. If after cleaning and reinserting these module devices, there is still a problem, check for loose or damaged wires which connect to the back (rear) of the device.
16.
Data, Restore, Recovery and Backup
Controlling and managing data takes manual effort and time. Making regular or real-time backups may be essential to save your data correctly.
Losing data is a negative experience and recovering data is not much more enjoyable. So take good advice and take a helpful hint to make copies!
At times, making backups can get messy if you are not organised, particularly when dealing with large volumes of data.
If you are in the situation where your computer, tablet or smartphone will not start up correctly, staying focused on taking the correct recovery steps in a systematic order to find and get back your documents and photos could be crucial to getting your stuff back.
Notebook computers usually fall into 3 categories of system restore or recovery: 1. No built-in system restore or recovery availability unless you buy the Operating System Disk or download online, such as Microsoft Windows or Apple Macintosh OS and install it from a DVD disc or purchased Digital download in the form of an installer.
2. For a long time, many notebooks have contained 1 (one) HD or SSD partitioned (split into two or more sections), which is usually the main drive where the OS and data are installed, split into virtual partition drives, labelled as C Drive and D Drive, whereby the second drive (2nd drive), D Drive is where the System Recovery Image is stored or is used for storage space by the user.
To activate or launch System Recovery, press the Function Key(s) or other keys and follow the offline (hard copy printed in the computer manual) or online instructions for your Brand and Model of notebook computer, supplied by the manufacturer. For example, if you own a HP notebook, you can search their website - www.hp.com for your model of notebook and use a keyword term such as 'system recovery' or 'system restore'.
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3. Some modern notebooks, such as Lenovo notebook computers (www.lenovo.com), have a System Reset button inside a small pinhole. On older models, it is located under the laptop (at the base), with the text written next to it, ' Reset.' On newer models, the reset button and hole is next to the Power button on top of the notebook.
Turn off the notebook with the power plug still connected and electricity flowing to the computer. Insert a paperclip, pin or other thin object, then Menu Options will appear. Select
'Troubleshoot,' then 'Reset This PC.'
If that does not work, select 'Advanced Options,' then select ‘ Reset This PC.'
*[CAUTION]: REMEMBER, THAT THIS WILL ERASE ALL OF YOUR FILES
(DOCUMENTS, PICTURES, MUSIC AND VIDEOS), SO BEFORE DOING SO, YOU
SHOULD CONSIDER BACKING UP YOUR FOLDERS AND FILES TO A SPARE
DRIVE OR DISC. IF YOU DO NOT KNOW HOW TO DO THIS, TAKE IT TO A
COMPUTER REPAIR SHOP AND THEY CAN DO IT THERE FOR YOU, BEFORE
USING THE SYSTEM RESET BUTTON, TO MAKE SURE YOU HAVE ALL OF YOUR
DATA.
16.1. Data
Data is something everyone uses in a digital environment. We create it, move it, copy it, paste it, delete it, erase it, remove it and basically move it around all day and night. Every time we are on a computer or technological device and using it, we are working with data.
16.2. Restore
System restore’s are a commonly used feature/function that owners should know how to use -
particularly Microsoft Windows, which is prone to malware attacks more than other software such as Apple’s iOS, Android and probably the safest are Linux OS’s.
Making a snapshot or disk image is a smart idea, to keep a carbon copy of your machine and be able to restore it from a .iso file format and continue working. Sure there may be some data loss, but if you backed your data up often, you should be okay, with only a few documents that were not updated.
Typically, System Restore’s restore your computer from an earlier backup time.
16.3. Recovery
System recoveries are usually a complete reset for the whole drive – that is, the hard drive (HDD or SSD) are formatted and a system image (.iso file) written to the selected HDD or SSD, returning the device to its original factory settings or some other disc/disk image (.iso) that has be selected for installing onto the drive.
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A backup is usually a daily or weekly task involving copying (or backing up) your documents, pictures, music and videos to a local storage device/location or network (such as a server or in the cloud [cloud computing]) in order to make copies that can be recovered in case of local data loss.
You can manually do a backup by: selecting the file or folder to copy, then move to the destination where you want to replace the other file or folder, right-click the mouse, touchpad or screen and then select ‘replace or replace all.’ Replace, will only replace one (1) file or folder, whereas the replace all function will replace everything.
17.
Power Supplies, Electrical, Electronic, UPS’s, Chargers and Charging
17.1. Smartphones
Knowing some electrical and electronic terms may help expand and improve your ability to repair an electronic device and/or electrical component(s) inside your device. Using the correct terminology for a suspect or replacement part may warrant you capable of communicating correctly and efficiently with technology sales staff – a handy skill to have in this pro-technology era that we have built around us over the past 30 years. In 2023 today, smartphones are all the rage (fashionable and popular), becoming more popular than desktop computers. People now rely on their smartphones for daily living, such as: an alarm clock, the news, to check and send emails, receive messages (SMS or app), GPS … and the list goes on.
Rechargeable batteries are now popular for most electronic devices, commonly known as handheld, mobile or portable. These devices operate on low voltage power, usually under 5 Volts (V) DC
(Direct Current) via USB charging through the mains plug AC/DC converter.
17.2.
iPads
iPads use 4.97 volts (V) and 2.1 amperes or amps (A) of power.
17.3.
Android Tablets
Android tablets use 5 volts, 2.1 amps and 10.5 watts of power.
17.4. Notebooks
Notebooks (generally speaking) use a 220-250 Volt AC (Alternating Current) input from standard home wall socket power supplies, which are converted to 19 volts DC (Direct Current) into the notebook, which is then again converted down to 5 volts for usage across the mainboard.
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17.5. Desktop and Server Computers
Most desktop and server computers or mounted racks, operate on the standard 220-250 volts D.C.
and run on mains power - usually 220-250 Volts AC (Alternating Current) power. Power supplies are fitted inside the computer case housing, usually near the electrical socket. Knowledge of safety and electronic wiring are important, so that you do not get hurt or break your computer.
Many people like to do it themselves, because they are home hobbyists or simply want to save money, however most people on average would employ a computer technician to open, repair or service their computers just like they would hire an electrician or plumber.
18.
Free Software: Apps, Programs, OS’s and Utilities
Free is a word used in the technology world to usually describe software, apps or programs.
Many people expect something free today. Whether it is a free MS Windows program, a free Android app or a free operating system. People have tried to hack and crack software for decades and have succeeded at it, however there have been and continue to be ‘flaws’ in this type of activity.
Technically illegal, it is virtually impossible to ’police’ and hold any individual legally accountable due to the complications based around privacy and a person’s rights to privacy or to just even be held accountable at all, regardless.
Companies, however, are legally challenged from time-to-time over copyright or intellectual property (IP) theft. This is mostly because a lot of money can be involved.
Torrents are pirated (copied), hacked or cracked files such as movies, music and software.
Often these torrent files are either poor quality, will infect your device with malicious ware or will not work (offline or after going online due to trackers within the software that companies use to disable your cracked software).
18.1.
Computers
Many companies may want you to try their software by offering you a one (1) month or 30 days free trial and after that time has expired, you must either pay for it or uninstall it (remove it). Some apps are genuinely free, but most ‘free’ apps are open-source, which means that it has a public license, for anyone to freely use and distribute in its original form (that is, not tampered with before distributing it without permission from the developer, because the software may be subject to terms which include tampering with it and distributing it as a potential or actual new product for sale. The developers are allowed to demand a fee to use, change or share their software, if they deem you to be making a profit from it in the form of money.
Source Forge is a popular open-source website for anyone to download free apps/applications/software/programs for Windows, Mac and Linux. The website address is
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Some companies release free utilities or ‘tools,’ to download for use of their products, but also -
sometimes other products. For example, a disk formatting tool, made by one company, may work on products made by other manufacturers. For example, a formatting utility made by Seagate to format Seagate hard disk drives, may also work with a Toshiba hard disk drive.
Software Types - Internet Name
Meaning
Freeware
Free software
Demoware/Trialware
Time-limited full-featured commercial software
(7, 14 or 30 day trial software after which time
you must pay for it or uninstall/remove
otherwise it will not work)
Shareware
Freely distributed and functioning software that
does not contain all of the features (limited
functionality), unless you pay for it
Commercial/Proprietary/Closed-source
Paid software or apps which includes all features
with advertising and watermarks removed
(unrestricted use, so long as you have paid for
the licence per device – many software
developers are strict with licences, in that
usually they will only permit 1 licenced copy of
their software for use on 1 device
Open-source
Free software that may ask for a donation or be
under development. It is free to distribute and
use without a commercial licence.
Here are some website links where you can download free (open-source) software programs or apps for your computer or smartphone:
1. The Free Software Directory: https://fsf.org
Here is the shortcut to the software directory: https://directory.fsf.org/wiki/Main_Page
Platforms: Windows, MacOS, Linux, iOS, Android
2. Graphics/Picture Editor (Adobe Photoshop Copy): https://gimp.org
Platforms: Windows, MacOS and Linux
3. Encyclopedia: https://wikipedia.org
4. Office (Microsoft Office copy):
4.1. https://libreof
fice.org (Libre Office) Platforms: Windows, MacOS and Linux
4.2. https://openof
fice.org (Open Office) Page 89 /95
Platforms: Windows, MacOS and Linux
4.3. Virus and Security Software
4.3.1.
Microsoft Windows and Mac OS
1. Clamav.net
4.3.2.
Linux
1. Clamav.net
4.3.3.
Android and iPhone
1. Virus Total (Android and iPhone)
18.2. Smartphones
There are sites such as apkpure.com and apkmonk.com which allow you to download and install apps without going through the Google Play store, allowing you to directly download and install software without gaining permission, however your Android system must have the permissions to allow apps to be installed from unknown sources. .
The file extension for installing apps on Android are .apk files, which must be given access permission in settings on your phone ( allow apps to be installed from unknown sources).
If you do a search on the internet, there will be websites out there that offer independently made, as well as commercially available apps for Android - downloadable as a .apk app installer file.
This is the native installer file format for Android.
19. Keyboard Shortcuts
Shortcut commands on your keyboard are a quicker and easier way of operating your software, particularly in file management. Cutting, Deleting, Copying or Pasting can all be done a lot faster than using the File Menu, because it is a quick combination of keys ‘pressed together’ to do certain commands, that are useful in file management and document processing and handling. This allows for a swifter movement of tasks during productivity, whether sending emails or managing data in bulk.
To be able to effectively use keyboard shortcut commands, you first need to be aware of where the shortcut keys are on your keyboard. You should locate the Ctrl (Control Key), the Alt (Alt Key), Shift Key and F Keys (F1-F12) on your keyboard.
To achieve a result from the keyboard shortcuts, you must first highlight or select the text or object that is to be actioned. You do this by using your mouse or touchpad to press and ‘hold-down’ the left mouse or touchpad button of your device and drag or slide the mouse/touchpad to ‘highlight’
(which means select) the text to do whatever you want with it. This makes tasks a lot quicker.
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Keyboard Shortcut Combinations
Key combination
Action
Ctrl+A
Select All
Shift+Ctrl+Home
Go to the top of the page.
Shift+Ctrl+End
Go to the last page.
Ctrl+G
Go to Page Number X
Ctrl+C
Copy
Ctrl+X
Cut
Ctrl+Z
Undo the last action(s)
Ctrl+V
Paste
Ctrl+P
Shift+Alt
Move an object as you drag it to be where you
want it – incrementally (not snapped to a grid
point), by using the mouse pointer and left
mouse button
Shift+Ctrl+ “+ or -’
Zoom In or zoom Out ‘+/-’
Esc, Del, F1, F2, F10 or F12
These are the usual F (Function) keys to be
pressed at startup, to enter the BIOS on your
computer. Be aware, that each manufacturer may
use a different key to allow you to enter the
BIOS. Search on the internet for which key to
use, to enter the BIOS for your device
F7, F8, F9, F10, F11 or F12
Boot (startup) your computer using a different
hard drive, OS, DVD, CD, Network Drive or
USB device
Scroll Down or Up pages quickly
Fn (Function) key + Up Arrow or Down Arrow
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_keyboard_shortcuts for more information.
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Technology Dictionary (Glossary)
This dictionary contains words, acronyms and other terms, which will help you understand technology terminology (technical jargon or lingo).
Modern words, acronyms and version numbers such as WPA3, may help solve an important and necessary issue to a particular problem or multiple problems that has arisen or could arise on the device(s) or network(s).
Technical Dictionary and Vocabulary
Android=Linux smartphone
Antenna=external wire for
Audio=sound.
OS.
receiving transmission signal of
audio and/or video.
Auxiliary=external device.
Bit=1’s or 0’s (1=true, 0=false) BIOS=Basic Input/Output
System
A one or a zero is a bit.
Byte=8 x bits.
CSS=Cascading Style Sheets
Chip=microchip or
Default=original software
microprocessor chip.
settings or state from the
developer.
Dialogue Box=A pop-up box
DDR= Double Data Rate
Download=a file, folder or data
which contains options or
(version 4) Synchronous
that has been downloaded from
changeable settings within an
Dynamic Random Access
the internet or a network from
app.
Memory (SDRAM) for your
some location
computer or notebook
computer.
E-commerce=a website or app Encryption=encoded data
File Extension= the dot (.xxxx)
that sells goods or services
and letters and/or numbers after,
online using a payment gateway
the name of the file used to
to collect the money using a
define what file format (file
type) a file is. e.g.
credit card or debit card.
‘MyMovie.mp4’ (dot m p four
file format (also called the ‘file
extension’)
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Floppy disk=the first flexible
ftp=file transfer protocol (a
BIOS hardware: this is the
hard disks for floppy disk
download alternative protocol
software that operates the
drives
to http. It can be secured with a
functioning and operations of
username and password. For
the mainboard and its
example:
peripherals such as hard disk
ftp://ftp.website.com/folder_A
drives, USB ports, graphics
cards, displays and security
ftps=file transfer protocol
FTTH or FTTP=Fibre To The
secure (a secure ftp connection Home or Fibre To The
to upload or download files to a Premises. This is optic fibre remote location online)
cable to homes, offices and
factories.
Similarly, FTTB=Fibre To The
Business and FTTO=Fibre To
The Office.
Generic=non-specific, general Gigabit=1,000,000,000 x bits.
generic drivers for a graphics
card e.g. Microsoft Windows
generic graphics display drivers
and not Nvidia graphics display
drivers
GB=Gigabyte
HTML=hyper text markup
http=hypertext transfer protocol
1 GB=1,000,000,000 bytes.
language
https=hypertext transfer
protocol secure
IoT=Internet of Things
IP=Internet Protocol
IP address=Internet Protocol
IR=InfraRed: wireless / remote
address (IPv4 or IPv6)
infrared light connection
technology such as a TV remote
control
Jack=also known as a plug,
Kernel=the core computer
Kilobit=1,000 x bits.
such as a 3.5 mm audio jack for program of the operating a computer or smartphone
system (OS)
Kbps=Kilobits per second
Kilobyte=1,000 x bytes.
Mbps=Megabits per second
Megabit=1,000,000 x bits.
Megabyte=1,000,000 x bytes.
Mic=microphone
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MP3=MPEG III (Audio version MP4=MPEG IV (Video version OEM=Original Equipment 3 file: .mp3)
4 file: .mp4)
Manufacturer
OS=Operating System
Ping=to send an IP port open
Plug=also known as a jack,
Plug=also known as a jack,
request (test) command to a
such as a 3.5 mm audio plug
such as a 3.5 mm audio plug
domain name (website) from a
command line, e.g. ping
google.com
POP3=Post Office Protocol
RFC=request for comments: a RPM=Revolutions per Minute
version 3 (for receiving emails) standards publication written by (HDD speed); a group of internet and
RPM=Redhat Package Manager
computer scientists and
file extension (.rpm) for Redhat
engineers at the IETF (Internet Linux OS’s.
Engineering Task Force)
Sandbox=a virtual computing
SCSI=Small Computer System SMTP=Simple Mail Transfer
folder or environment used to
Interface
Protocol (for sending emails)
prevent software viral
infections to installed programs
or apps
TCP=Transmission Control
Upload=a file or folder that is
UPS=uninterrupted power
Protocol
uploading or has been uploaded supply: this is like having a to a remote location, such as a battery inside a powerboard, Cloud service or computer
which means that if the mains
server, somewhere.
electricity stops, the UPS
sustains power to your
device(s), avoiding
interruptions and damage
USB=Universal Serial Bus
WAN=Wide Area Network
Web Portal=a secure login for a
website, to access information
Webmail: online email account www=world wide web
XHTML=XML HTML web
using a web browser
page
XML=extensible markup
language (used for transmitting
data efficiently in a customised
format)
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Thank you for downloading and reading this ebook. Your increased knowledge will support you whenever and wherever you face technology. This book has given you the skills to manage technology easier than you could before. These skills give you the ability to use your knowledge in order to make the right decisions, when interacting with technology in everyday life.
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