ALTRUISM
What is altruism?
Webster's New World Dictionary defines altruism as unselfish concern for the welfare of others. Although this concept seems relatively straightforward, it does contain some internal uncertainty, leading to some contradictory conclusions. Firstly, altruism is a tenet of social ethics (concern for others) rather than personal ethics (concern for one's self) - or so it would seem. That is why it is defined as unselfish. But what about the possibility that concern for others might be selfish? One perspective in population genetics postulates that a concern for relatives is "really" just an attempt to protect one's own gene pool - so the closer the relationship, the more likely one will be altruistic. Could this behaviour be extended from relatives to friends, and still count as selfish altruism? By the same token, radical egoists argue that no action by any person is "really" ever altruistic - that in some sense the motivation to help others still advances the goals of the person, albeit indirectly (helping a fellow ideologue still promotes the ideas a person is committed to).
Both primitive cultures and traditional religions have glorified altruism as caring and preferable, and egoism as selfish and undesirable. Modern, liberal culture is premised on the ideal of societies that can accommodate BOTH responsibilities to one's self AND to others. This does not mean that choices will not be necessary, BUT that is should be possible to make such choices and satisfy both requirements - neither one's self NOR others will get everything they want, but everyone involved will find enough satisfaction to make life tolerable (given reasonable expectations). So, egoism forms the context for altruism, and altruism forms the context for egoism. The objection that radical egoists have against the "ideal type" of altruism is that such behavior is often rationalized by the term "sacrifice". Egoists object to altruism because it is defined as unselfish, and they claim to believe in the virtue of selfishness. If concern for others were premised as voluntary rather than mandatory, egoists can make such choices as they see fit.
How is altruism manifest?
One wag summed up these dilemmas rather well with the comment "I know what we are here for; it's to help others. What I am not sure of is what the others are here for!" Both the advocacy of, and the objection to altruism are "really" referring to a kind of concept that sociologist Max Weber called an Ideal Type - an archetypal idea that is a standard against which to measure performance rather than a realistic assessment of actual behavior. Some concern for the welfare of others is a requirement of living in human groups - only hermits need not be altruistic in this sense. Desiring that people obey minimal institutional rules (traffic rules, etc.) expresses concerns for both one's self and others (I don't want others to drive carelessly because in the process they might injure both themselves and me). In these circumstances (which are the ones normally encountered) what is needed is a balance, or trade-offs, so that protecting one's self and helping others are complementary, NOT exclusionary.
Reference
Stephen Toulmin
THE ROLE OF REASON IN ETHICS
Cambridge University Press, London, 1951