THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
177. By the term Whole Composition or Theme is meant a composition consisting of a
number of related paragraphs al dealing with one general subject, whether the composition
be a narration, a description, or an exposition.
The folowing general principles applying to the construction of the whole composition are
stated for the guidance of the inexperienced writer.
178. Statement of Subject. Care should be used in the statement of the subject. It should
not be so stated as to be more comprehensive than the composition, but should be limited to
cover only what is discussed. For a smal essay, instead of a big subject, take some limited
phase of that subject:
Too broad: College, Photography, Picnics.
Properly limited: A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power, Does College Life
Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How Picnics Help the Doctor.
179. The Outline. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine, if anything creditable
is to be attained, a carefuly made plan is necessary before entering on the construction; so in
the writing of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline, which wil
determine what different things are to be discussed, and what is to be the method of
developing the discussion. By the inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never
be begun until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as the material for the
composition is in hand, the outline should be made. It should be an aid in the construction of Page 175
the composition, not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only by the
previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be gained, topics properly
subordinated, and a suitable proportion secured in their discussion.
In the previous chapter on the paragraph the folowing different subtopics, were discussed:
Definition of Paragraph.
How to Secure Unity.
Length of Paragraph.
How to Secure Coherence.
The Topic Sentence.
Too Frequent Paragraphing.
Unity in the Paragraph.
Paragraphing of Speech.
Coherence in the Paragraph.
Paragraphing for Emphasis.
Examples of Unity.
Examples showing how Unity is Destroyed.
Purpose of the Paragraph.
Emphasis in the Paragraph.
The Paragraph Theme.
If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a sorry result would have been
obtained. Compare the above list of topics with the folowing arrangement of the same topics
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in a logical outline.
THE PARAGRAPH
1. Its definition and purpose.
2. Its length.
Paragraphing of speech.
Paragraphing for emphasis.
Too frequent paragraphing.
3. Its essential qualities.
A. Unity.
Definition.
Examples showing how unity is destroyed.
How to secure unity.
The topic sentence.
Development of topic sentence.
Examples showing unity.
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B. Coherence.
Definition.
How to secure coherence.
Examples showing coherence.
C. Emphasis.
Places of emphasis in the paragraph.
4. Practical construction of the paragraph.
5. The paragraph theme.
180. Use and Qualities of the Outline. The use of the outline is not restricted to an
expository composition, as above, but is also necessary in narration and description. Usualy,
in a narration, the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in which to present
them, though other arrangements may frequently be folowed with very good reason.
In a description different methods may be folowed. Often a general description is given,
and then folowed by a statement of various details. Thus, in describing a building, one might
first describe in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and the impression it
makes on the observer. Then more particular description might be made of its details of
arrangement and peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation.
The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement and to avoid confusion
and repetition. To secure this end the outline should present a few main topics to which al
others either lead up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should al bear
some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation may be that of chronology;
that of general statement folowed by details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so
long as it is a logical and natural one.
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The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be sufficient only to cover the
various divisions of the subject-matter, and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too Page 177
detailed outline tends to make the composition stiff and formal.
The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the subject should be the
main topics. Minor subjects should not be given too great prominence, but should be
subordinated to the main topics.
181. The Beginning of the Composition. To choose a method of beginning a
composition often causes trouble. Usualy a simple, direct beginning is the best. But
sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary in order to explain the writer's point of
view, or to indicate to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine the
folowing methods of beginning.
THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER
Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which the United States towers in
unapproachable supremacy above all other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about
it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in all the literature of American self-praise.
MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS
Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood, than the feelings of terror which I
experienced when forced to go to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that dread,
indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed.
THE USES OF IRON
No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as iron.
The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand alone; their meaning or
clearness should not depend upon reference to the title.
Bad:
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THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
There is a rapidly growing belief that this study has too large a place in our high-school courses of
study.
Good:
THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
There is a rapidly growing belief that Latin has too large a place in our high school courses of study.
182. Unity in the Composition. Unity is an essential element of the whole composition as
wel as of the paragraph, and its demands here are in general the same. Nothing must be
brought into the composition which does not fal wel within the limits of the subject. In the
different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed which properly belongs to some other
division of the topic.
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As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted and adhered to. There
must not be a continual changing of relation of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of
the writer's relation to the subject.
A consistent point of view is especialy necessary in a narrative. If the writer is teling of
events within his own experience, care must be taken not to bring in any conversation or
occurrence, at which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual changing
back and forth between present and past tenses must also be avoided. One or the other
should be adopted consistently.
183. Coherence in the Composition. A composition must also be coherent. Its different
parts must be closely knit together and the whole closely knit to the subject. Just as in the
paragraph, words of reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words, or
sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to bind the whole together and
show the relation of its parts.
For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite change of topic should be Page 179
closely marked, so as to prevent confusion. There should be transition sentences, or
sentences which show the change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same
time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition sentences may come at
the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the beginning of a folowing one, or at both of these
places.
Examine the folowing parts of paragraphs in which the words or phrases showing
transition from part to part are italicized:
(Last sentence of first paragraph)
... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind.
(Second paragraph)
The mischief, however, recoiled on the unhappy people of this country, who were made the
instruments by which the wicked purposes of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its
best blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense of the war was enormous—much
beyond any former experience.
(Third paragraph)
And yet, what has the British nation received in return for this expense....
... I was now enabled to see the extent and aspect of my prison. In its size I had been greatly
mistaken....
(Beginning of paragraph folowing one on Unity in the paragraph)
The second of the essentials of the paragraph, coherence, demands that....
Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is devoted to accomplishing
the transition from part to part. Observe the folowing:
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(Paragraph 7)
... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly of last year authorizing the receipts
from the automobile taxes to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the enumeration Page 180
of what has already been done toward building good roads.
(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph)
There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of this important result, which are now
being seriously discussed.
(Paragraph 9)
The first of these plans is ...
The folowing are a few of the words and phrases often used to indicate transition and to
show relation between the paragraphs: So much for, It remains to mention, In the next
place, Again, An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of this, By
way of exception.
Examine the selection under §187.
184. The Ending of the Composition. In a longer composition, the ending should neither
be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should it be too long drawn out. It should be in
proportion to the length of the composition. Usualy, except in the case of a story, it should
consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference. In a story, however, the
ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of ending depends entirely upon the nature and the
scheme of development of the story. Examine the folowing endings:
Ending of a theme on The Uses of Iron:
Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron, have been mentioned. There are
hundreds of other uses to which it is constantly put—uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may
once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since lost its claim to that title.
Ending of a story:
John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate.
"Good-bye," he said.
And then he was gone, forever.
Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions.
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1. How I Spent my Vacation.
2. Shal Final Examinations be Abolished?
3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools.
4. My Qualifications for a Position.
5. The Uses of Iron.
6. Paul Revere's Ride.
7. The City Park.
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8. My Town as a Place of Residence.
9. The Value of Railroads.
10. Why I Believe in Local Option.
11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride.
12. Shal Foreign Immigration be Restricted?
13. My Youthful Business Ventures.
14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party.
15. Various Methods of Heating a House.
185. Below is given in ful Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech. It is perfect in its English and its
construction. Study it with especial reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of
the words of coherence have been italicized.
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived
in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great
civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.
We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as the
final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting
and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we
cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far
above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here; but it
can never forget what they did here.
It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here Page 182
have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining
before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here
gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in
vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people,
by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
186. Small Economies, from Mrs. Gaskel's Cranford.
I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small economies—careful habits of saving
fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction—any disturbance of which annoys him more than
spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance.
An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in
which some of his money was invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a long
summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless
bank-book. Of course, the corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this little
unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed him more than all the loss of his money.
Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he could reconcile
himself to such waste of his cherished article was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him,
and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I see him casting wistful glances at his
daughters when they send a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of acceptance
to an invitation, written on only one of the sides.
I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get
full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously
annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and faithfully undoing it fold by fold.
How people can bring themselves to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string, as
lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band is a precious treasure. I have one which
is not new—one that I picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried to use it, but my Page 183
heart failed me, and I could not commit the extravagance.
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Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation because of the annoyance
occasioned by the habit which some people have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have
you not seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? They would feel it
a relief if they might bury it out of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing it
down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a
piece of toast (which he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is not waste.
Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices to use as few as possible. In the
winter afternoons she would sit knitting for two or three hours—she could do this in the dark, or by
firelight—and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me
to "keep blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt one at a time. As
we lived in constant preparation for a friend who might come in any evening (but who never did), it
required some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready to be lighted, and to look as
if we burnt two always. The candles took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss
Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and extinguish it and to light the
other before they had become too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of the
evening.
One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me. I had been very much tired of my
compulsory "blind man's holiday," especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to stir
the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with
sewing by firelight, according to my usual custom....
187. A List of Books for Reading. These books are of a varied character and are al
interesting and of recognized excelence in their English. Most of them are books that, as a
matter of general education, should be read by everyone.
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Fiction:
Treasure Island—Stevenson.
Kidnapped—Stevenson.
Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde—Stevenson.
The Scarlet Letter—Hawthorne.
Twice Told Tales—Hawthorne.
The Luck of Roaring Camp—Bret Harte.
Tales of Mystery and Imagination—Poe.
Silas Marner—Eliot.
Robinson Crusoe—Defoe.
Ivanhoe—Scott.
Henry Esmond—Thackeray.
Pilgrim's Progress—Bunyan.
The Spy—Cooper.
The Man without a Country—Hale.
Tales of a Traveler—Irving.
The Legend of Sleepy Holow—Irving.
Rip Van Winkle—Irving.
Lorna Doone—Blackmore.
Uncle Wiliam—Lee.
The Blue Flower—Van Dyke.
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Non-fiction:
Sesame and Lilies—Ruskin.
Stones of Venice—Ruskin.
The American Commonwealth—Bryce.
A History of the English People—Green.
Views Afoot—Taylor.
The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table—Holmes.
Conspiracy of Pontiac—Parkman.
Autobiography—Franklin.
Lincoln—Douglas Debates.
Critical Periods of American History—Fiske.
Certain Delightful English Towns—Howels.
The Declaration of Independence.
Bunker Hil Oration—Webster.
On Conciliation with America—Burke.
The Sketch Book—Irving.