charmed before gnosis can be attained The
the Cave” (yār-i ghār), an allusion to the histori-
importance of the Hymn of the Pearl in the Ira-
cal journey of the Prophet Muḥammad from
nian sphere is, moreover, documented by the fact
Mecca to Medina during which he found refuge
that it is later appropriated by the Manichaeans 86
in a cave with the first caliph, Abū Bakr, thus
As Simo Parpola demonstrates, the story has no
completing the cycle 91 The king so transcends
apparent Greek, Christian or Jewish parallels, but
the material limits of life on earth, and the trea-
it is closely paralleled by several Mesopotamian
sure is transformed into ultimate spiritual perfec-
myths that were popular in the Neo-Assyrian,
tion 92
Neo-Babylonian and Persian periods 87
The mystical poet and thinker Farīd al-Dīn
It is interesting to consider the Parthian alle-
ʿAṭṭār ( c 537/1142–3–617/1220), who was born
gorical epic in the light of the mystical traditions
in Nīshāpūr, also alludes to the dragon’s implicit
of the medieval Islamic period Analogous ideas
association with spirituality:
are expressed in Niẓāmī’s Haft Paykar in which
you are a treasure of spirituality and where your
the motif of the treasure-guarding dragon plays
treasure is, there is the dragon 93
an important part in the biographical journey of
the fifth-century Sasanian ruler Bahrām Gūr (the
The dragon is thus experienced as a stage or
sobriquet Gūr, or onager (a wild ass) referring to
threshold which functions not as an end but as a
his prowess at hunting; 420–438) from birth to
healing, transforming way station not only for a
death 88 The pattern of Bahrām’s life likewise
more harmonious inner and social life but also
recalls that of a mythic hero who must pass suc-
as a symbol that could lead to a distinct and higher
cessive tests to prove his worth In the first of four
vision of the absolutely transcendent Divine In
linked exploits an onager (gūr) of extraordinary
a passage of the Mathnawī, Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī
beauty, described as a spiritual form (paykar-i
similarly describes the dragon as guarding the
rūḥānī), leads the prince to the mouth of a remote
treasure, the hidden essence:
cave before which lies a terrible dragon that
Wherever men put a big lock, that is a sign that
guards a treasure 89 The dragon, which has
there is to be found something precious and valu-
devoured the onager’s foal, is slain by the mighty
able So you see the greater the veil the better
hunter and its belly slit open, whereupon the foal
the element Just as a snake is over the treasure,
emerges unharmed and leads Bahrām to the dis-
so do you not regard our ugliness, but regard
covery of the treasure, a necessary step on his
the precious things of the treasure 94
path to kingship 90 The story thus fol ows the con-
This “hidden treasure” guarded by the dragon is
vention of the heroic epic in which a quest must
the heart of man, the centre of his spiritual phys-
be undertaken to recover a stolen treasure from
iognomy 95 The pivotal role accorded to the
a dragon The first and last episodes repeat the
dragon in the journey of transformation is alle-
same motif, the undertaking of the spiritual quest
gorically expressed by the poet and mystic
that anticipates Bahrām’s fourth trial, the final
Mawlānā Nūr al-Dīn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Jāmī
hunt, which represents the end of his symbolic
(817/1414–898/1492), born in Khardjird near
journey Again he is guided by an onager to a
Herat, in his dīwān:
remote cave in which lies a deep water-filled
chasm, into which the king plunges on horseback,
The teeth of the key [which open the treasure
“consigning the kingly treasure to the cave ” He
chest]
vanishes to become one with the “Companion of
Are the teeth of the dragon 96
86 Russell, 2004, pp 1261, 1264 and n 8 For parallels in
formal manifestation and meets at the end with death, which
Mandean literature, see idem, p 1296 and n 51
symbolizes birth into a new spiritual life and also conveys
87 Parpola, 2001, pp 181–93
the irreversibility of the process of spiritual realisation He
88 Meisami, 1987, pp 211–3, and eadem, 1993, p 155
who has left the cosmos does not become imprisoned in it
89 Eadem, 1993, p 160
again ” Nasr, 1964b, p 44
90 Cf Krotkoff, 1984, p 102, n 33
93 Dīwān, ed Nafīsī, S , Tehran, 1960, p 23, cited after
91 Cf idem, pp 113–4, ns 21, 33; Meisami, 1987, p 223,
Daneshvari, 1993, pp 23–4
and eadem, 1993, p 163 and n 5
94 Tr and ed Arberry, 1947, repr 2004, p 241
92 Haft Paykar, tr eadem, 1995, p 259, ch 52, l 27 “The
95 Cf , for instance, Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār’s account of the
traveller learns from the Guide … what the structure of the
soul’s journey during its mystical meditation in a period of
cosmic crypt is and what dangers he must face if he under-
retreat expounded in his Muṣībat-nāma (“Book of Afflic-
takes the journey through and beyond it Then he accepts the
tion”); see the exposition given in Corbin, 1993, pp 287–8
challenge and makes the sojourn through the cosmic moun-
96 Ed Rāzī, H , Tehran, 1957, p 24, as cited in Danesh-
tains and valleys until he finally comes out of the world of
vari, 1993, p 19
concluding remarks
205
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The immense cultural significance of the serpent-
that would usher in a new age and a new creation
dragon is best demonstrated by the fact that its
Serpents and dragons thus came to be classed
iconography was known and exploited through-
as noxious beings (khrafstra s ), creatures of the
out Western Asia in the medieval period More-
“hostile spirit” Ahriman and as such evil and
over, it was not restricted to just one religious
deserving of death In spite of this the Greek
creed Jews, Christians, Moslems, Buddhists, Hin-
writer Philo of Byblos ( c 64–141) records a saying
dus and others were equally ready to employ its
of the magus Zoroaster/Zarathushtra according
likeness in textual and visual sources while con-
to which the serpent is not only immortal but
tributing, each in their own way, to the broad
“the director of everything beautiful … the best
repository of dragon and serpent iconography
of the good, the wisest of the wise … the father
A wide semantic range of serpent-dragon ico-
of order and justice, self-taught … and perfect
nography and iconology evolved during its imme-
and wise …”2 The link between these statements
morial history in Western Asia Textual and visual
and historical Iranian Zoroastrianism seems ten-
sources reflect the quintessential ambiguity of
uous Nevertheless, as well as reflecting the Hel-
such imagery Animated by the endless interplay
lenistic reception of Zoroastrian ideas they may
of dichotomous forces the creature revealed itself
suggest that the Iranian definition of the serpent-
as deliverer or destroyer, regenerator or anni-
dragon as unequivocally maleficent was perhaps
hilator, protector or adversary The dragon thus
not always as cut and dried as appears from sur-
served to embody the eternal opposition
viving scriptures 3
of two distinct forces, one seeking to preserve
The serpent-dragon’s association with the mys-
life, the other to destroy it, a polarity giving rise
teries of birth and death is echoed in Philo’s
to a kaleidoscopic diversity of function and sym-
monograph Ethothion (now lost but preserved in
bolism
excerpts by Eusebius) in which he claims that “it
The serpent-dragon accrued a range of nega-
is immortal and … dissolves into itself …; for
tive aspects following changes brought about by
this sort of animal does not die an ordinary death
the rise of Zoroastrian cosmological dualism A
unless it is violently struck ”4 The serpent is known
more robust symbolism was needed and the
to be the animal most filled with the breath of life
inherently powerful and combative serpent-
( pneuma) 5 Its connection with life is further sug-
dragon aptly came to represent the Zoroastrian
gested by the possible association of various terms
evil spirit who declares to God: “I shall destroy
for “serpent” with those of “life,” traceable espe-
you and your creatures forever and ever And I
cially in Aramaic and Arabic The case for tracing
shall persuade all your creatures to hate you and
such serpent names ( ḥiwyaʾ and ḥayya respec-
to love me ”1 In its new guise the dragon thus
tively) back to the root ḥyw, apparent in the word
assumed the mantle of eschatological opponent,
ḥay[w]āt (“life”),6 as described by Ibn Manẓūr in
the evil principle who would be destroyed, fol-
the Lisān al-ʿArab,7 was explored above in chapter
lowing a millennium of conflict, in a final battle
14 Such an etymology would elucidate the drag-
1 Boyce, 1984, p 46 This may be compared with the
tradiction to the classification of serpents as khrafstra s See
antagonism between Jahweh and the serpent in the Genesis
p 58, n 96, p 61, n 125 and p 136, n 42
narrative (2–4); see the interpretation by Rhodokanakis with
4 Philo of Byblos’ The Phoenician History (as quoted by
addendum by Ehrenzweig, 1921, pp 76–83
Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica 1 10 48), tr and ed Attridge
2 Philo of Byblos’ The Phoenician History (as quoted by
and Oden, 1981, p 65
Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica 1 10 52), tr and ed Attridge
5 Idem, p 63
and Oden, 1981, p 67 Cf eidem, p 95, n 161 for reference
6 See Wilson, 2001, pp 50, 97, 214, 221, 240 Also Astour,
on Zoroaster in this text
1965, p 194; Wallace, 1985, pp 143–72, esp pp 144, 148,
3 This supposition is further corroborated by the ongoing
151 and 160; also p 108
Zoroastrian practice of ophiomancy which is in striking con-
7 Beirut, n d , vol 14, p 211
206
concluding remarks
on’s affinity with symbols of fertility and fecundity
ciples This arresting visual trope serves as a short-
in the vegetal world, which often spring from its
hand, alluding to the act whereby the dragon has
mouth (hence are associated with his breath,
issued or will devour the central element The
saliva and tongue), as well as, by extension, its
processes of issuing and devouring are thereby
guardianship of treasures hidden in the earth and
intrinsically linked In both the dragon nature is
the sources of nature’s abundance
merged with that of the central motif The out-
At the same time the serpent-dragon is known
come of this synthesis is probably to be seen as
as the awful dragon of death In medieval writ-
empowering The imagery of the dragon heads
ings reference to its gaping mouth (as well as its
flanking a central motif thus may be presumed
breath or saliva) frequently alludes metaphori-
to represent a beneficial iconography, serving as
cally to impending calamity It manifests par-
powerful apotropaic device
ticular power in times of great danger, whether
The association of the serpent with healing
natural phenomena such as storm, flood or
powers and in turn with magic is well-known as
drought, or aspects of the heavens such as an
evidenced, for example, in the classical and Punic
eclipse, which may usher in calamity or disease
world by its symbolic relationship with Asklepios
The dragon’s association with the heavens was
or in the magical abilities of Thrita and Thraētaona,
further underlined through its identification with
the earliest healers of Iranian mythology, whose
astronomical and astrological manifestations
invention of an antidote for snake poison is par-
Its manifestly dual nature confers on the ser-
alleled by their heroic dragon-fighting feats The
pent-dragon an intermediate status The world-
same symbolism could be associated with Moses
encircling ouroboros marks the boundary between
raising the bronze serpent in the wilderness to
the ordered world and the chaos around it and
heal the victims of a plague of serpents Mounted
thereby appears itself as exponent of liminality
on a pole, the serpent serves as antidote to death
situated upon the ambiguous dividing line
This homeopathic principle was a frequently
between the divine and the demonic Thus
employed tool, also serving Iskandar according
in trinsically linked with the idea of the thres-
to al-Masʿūdī, when marine dragons obstructed
hold, dragon imagery appears around entrances
the building of the city of Alexandria The prin-
and portals of secular and religious architec -
ciple of similia similibus curantur involving the
tural monuments, where it serves as liminal
dragon is complemented by that of transforming
marker and apotropaic device in the role of a
alchemy In the symbolism of medieval Islamic
guardian imbued with prophylactic and talis-
alchemy paired interlaced dragons illustrate the
manic power, warding off the dangers inherent
fundamental polarity on which the cosmic rhythm
in such places
is based, the solve et coagula of the alchemical
It has also been shown that a visual hybridisa-
process The dragon here serves to embody the
circular nature of the alchemical process and the
tion resulted from a conflation of the dragon with
agency of transformation that both devours and
other animals, mythical creatures or vegetation
restores On yet another level Abū Maslama
This fusion draws two juxtaposed principles
Muḥammad al-Majrītī represents this in his trea-
together into a unified being, so creating a dual-
tise Ghāyat al-ḥakīm as the opposing principles
ity which simultaneously contrasts and fuses two
of positive and negative bodily temperaments
opposites These composites reflect an amalgama-
which are associated with the two celestial nodes
tion not only of external, that is physical, but also
(knots), the head and the tail of the “hidden
of internal, that is innate, characteristics This
essence ”
hybridisation finds an interesting parallel in the
The dragon can also be said to function as a
motif of the human face, animal head, vegetal
representative of the unknown, often conceived
ornament or benedictory inscription flanked by
of as hostile and threatening Resistant to ratio-
two dragon heads The visual pairing of the mon-
nalising and civilising influences, it came to rep-
strous heads is an example of the conceptual dou-
resent wicked foreign tyrants, a paramount
bling aspect of representations so prominent
example being the hominoid dragon Ẓaḥḥāk of
throughout the medieval period, a device intended
Iranian mythology who was turned into a his-
to reinforce and augment the visual impact and
toricised political entity, presumably blending
potency of the symbol This symbolism of gaping
spheres of history and mythology
dragons’ jaws flanking a central motif, which also
yet the frequent use of the dragon simile in
entails an astrological aspect, similarly affords a
panegyrics addressed to heroes and rulers reflects
glimpse into the process of conflating two prin-
at the same time both the numinous fear and the
concluding remarks
207
reverential awe that the creature evoked The
aries On the other there is the traditional culture
potency of the dragon, emblematised on para-
of popular folkloric belief shared by the general
phernalia of heroism and rulership such as ban-
populace Faced with the terrifying ambiguity of
ners or articles of personal adornment, relies on
the dragon nature, natural prudence suggests that
the same combination of fear and awe, while
pacification is the wisest course Ancient thought-
drawing particularly on the implicit semantics of
patterns, equivocal, artful and at times even mag-
the dragon iconography as protective and ben-
ical, offer the possibility of rendering the dragon
eficial
inoffensive and possibly even releasing its ben-
The significance accorded to the dragon figure
eficial aspect
is underscored by the fact that, as repeatedly noted
The enemy symbolised by a dragon is presented
above, it was singled out as monstrous paradig-
as formidable but generally vanquished yet the
matic adversary This fundamental juxtaposition
nature of the eminent monster is such that it can
between victor and vanquished dragon adversary
only be subdued by a warrior, frequently repre-
may in large part result from the influence of Ira-
sented as horseman, endowed with supernatural
nian dualist notions on the religions of the Near
powers and by miraculous means This imagery
East In many ways the treatment of the great
was used in Sasanian political propaganda at the
opponent also reveals a polemical trend The
investiture relief of Ardashīr I (r 224–241) at
Hebrew Bible represented pagan kings such as
Naqsh-i Rustam and likewise employed and
Nebuchadnezzar (Jeremiah 51 34) with the like-
adapted in Jewish, Christian or Islamic contexts
ness of the tannin,8 while in Christian imagery
Often however the fight with the dragon was
the dragon assumed an overal meaning as symbol
not a duel to the death, as frequently shown par-
and instrument of a diabolical force9 as visually
ticularly in political or eschatological contexts,
attested, for instance, in the eleventh- or early
but a taming of the creature The intent was to
twelfth-century Byzantine encyclopaedia of the
neutralise and contain the terrifying and equivo-
Metaphrastian Menologion volumes, featuring
cal forces inherent in the dragon rather than to
“revenge miniatures” employed for purposes of
annihilate them
politico-religious propaganda Dragon imagery
At this juncture it is important to emphasise
thus became a significant tool in the ongoing
that the intrinsic as well as extrinsic ambiguity
polemic against earlier cults Nonetheless, as has
of the serpent-dragon also entails an element of
been shown, numerous examples of such imagery
transcendence, necessarily so since the creature’s
survived the repressions and official mutations
mystery can only be explained as flowing from
of ancient beliefs These survivals testify to the
the juxtaposition of two or more levels of reality
strength of a complex immemorially ancient her-
In essence, then, it defies understanding The
itage of traditions, rituals, beliefs and legends that
cosmic aspect of the dragon, which sometimes
circulated in the medieval Western Asian world
surfaces, involves also a sacred dimension; it is
and beyond They illuminate the deep-rooted
interesting to note that the Latin term sacer means
potency as well as fluidity and eminent adapt-
both sacred and wretched or cursed Its inherent
ability of the dragon iconography, which lent itself
duality makes of the dragon image an embodi-
to constant renewal and to the revival of ancient
ment of change and transformation, and conse-
associations More than this, the survival of this
quently at times a cipher of upheaval
imagery also reflects popular belief in contrast to
Such associations extend the dragon’s seman-
official religious and political ideology, revealing
tic territory as agent of fertility and fecundity into
fundamental differences between two mentalities,
the realm of spiritual fertilisation Often however
sensibilities and needs On the one hand there is
the great beast serves as metaphor for spiritual
the ruling religious and political elite, claiming
realities whose meanings are obscured or veiled
the triumph of good over evil and imposing an
Another aspect of the hero’s combat with the
ideology which dictates clearly delineated bound-
dragon can thence be observed in the transforma-
8 See the discussion of the serpent as a symbol of Israel’s
larly evident with regard to the demonisation of female
political neighbours and enemies (this probably being closely
sexuality, cf eadem, pp 122–34 See also the representa-
related to the fact that for instance in Canaan the serpent
tions of prostrate female figures as the demonised enemy
was worshipped) in the exegesis of the Old Testament in
who is vanquished by the victorious horseman on Jewish or
Martinek, 1996, pp 53–5; also 61–2
Christian magical “amulets” that circulated in the Byzantine
9 In the apocrypha of the New Testament this is particu-
world, discussed on p 104
208
concluding remarks
tion of the mythical warrior into a new kind of
evoking complex and subtle ideas and responses
spiritual warrior (fātā) The combat which takes
Final y, it is important to recal the significance
place on an external mythical ground – symbol-