that presumably represented the caliph in the act
to the talismanic aspect is the potent symbolism of
of subduing a pair of mighty confronted drag-
the mysterious interlace of the dragons41 and the
ons whose expansive serpentine bodies entirely
knotting of their bodies, a conspicuous feature
filled the rest of the archivolt The monumental
on many depictions of the dragon, as discussed
sculptures, moreover, are not only to be seen as
below in chapter 10
images of power, for the added symbolism of the
Significant relations between the Islamic world
central figure contributes an important authorita-
and the Caucasus region, in particular Armenia,
tive component as will be considered in chapter 6
were established in early ʿAbbasid times Later on,
A pair of monumental intertwined double-
with the Saljuq conquests of the eastern Anato-
headed dragons guards one of the monumental
lian region, the Armenian iconographic repertoire
entrance gates to the citadel of Aleppo, which
served as a source of inspiration, and recipro-
was legendary for its impregnability 36 The large
cal contacts between the Saljuqs and the cultural
relief-carved frieze with the interlaced dragons
sphere of the Caucasus were established 42 The
surmounts a pointed archivolt with a raised frame
close geographic proximity led furthermore to a
at the main portal known as Serpent Gate (Bāb
natural sharing of iconographic emblems
al-Ḥayyāt, re-built probably around 606/1209–
After the Saljuq raids that led to the capture
10)37 at the eastern tower of the citadel rebuilt
of Ani, the ancient Armenian capital, near Kars,
under the Ayyubid ruler al-Malik al-Ẓāhir ibn
in 456/1064, the city continued to flourish under
Salāḥ al-Dīn (568/1173–613/1216) The two
the Kurdish Shaddādid emirs who subsequently
heads, one at the springing of the arch and the
bought the city from the Saljuqs in 464/1072
other at the apex, are crowned by a pair of cusped
During the Shaddādid period, as a result of the
ears and punctuated with small round eyes; their
Byzantine and Muslim wars which led to the inter-
pointed snouts reveal a row of prominent pointed
ruption of direct trade, Ani became an interme-
teeth with bifid tongues thrusting out Scaly ruff-
diary of the trade between Iraq and the Black
like collars from which project what appear to be
Sea and thus developed into an important and
tiny, upswept, cusped wings accentuate the base
wealthy trading centre 43
of the necks and delineate the bodies Their slen-
The long stylised bodies of a pair of dragons
der, serpentine bodies are thrice knotted on either
horizontally circumscribe two round towers (nos
side into evenly spaced, pretzel-like shapes The
46 and 62) of the northern city wall of Ani Their
entwined necks at the apex result in an addorsed
bodies are rendered in the form of a thick diag-
position of the dragon heads that with wide-open
onally hatched moulding, resembling a twisted
jaws appear to grasp or attack their bodies; this
rope, and end in large heads in profile with gaping
is mirrored in the lower necks and heads of the
mouths revealing rows of teeth and tongues with
dragons at the tail tips that are twisted around
bifid tips that flank a frontally rendered bovine
roundels enclosing eight-pointed star-rosettes
head which in one case holds a ring in its mouth
(figs 3a and b),38 which Willy Hartner has inter-
(fig 130) 44 The Shaddādids of Ani ( c 464/1072–
preted as solar symbols 39
595/1198–9 with interruptions) ordered work on
Astrological symbolism may however be but
the wal s, though the reliefs may equal y wel have
one component of the commanding composition
been added when the Shaddādid Abū Shudjāʿ
which in its fantastic, fierce, and awe-inspiring
Minūchihr ibn Abi ’l-Aswār Shāwur (d c. 512/
aspect, as yasser Tabbaa points out, exudes above
1118) was governing the city 45 In the same vein as
all also a symbolism of power 40 What is more,
ʿIzz al-Dīn Ibn Shaddād’s thirteenth-century elu-
the motif serves to strengthen the belief in the
cidation of serpent imagery on a tower in Aleppo
impregnability and inviolability of the citadel and
which was meant not only to prevent the detri-
to function as a powerful protective device Added
mental effects of snake-bites but also to protect the
36 Cf Tabbaa, 1997, pp 54, 76
43 Minorsky, 1953, pp 104–5
37 Herzfeld, 1954–5, p 85, no 36; Tabbaa, 1997, p 75
44 Öney, 1969a, pp 206–7, figs 28, 29; Gierlichs, 1996,
38 Cf Roux, 1980, pp 316–7, fig 10; Gierlichs, 1996,
pl 70 2, 3
pl 65, 1–3; Tabbaa, 1997, figs 25, 26
45 The sculptures have been variously dated to the late
39 Hartner, 1938, p 144
tenth century (977–989), the Armenian period; to the late
40 yasser Tabbaa (1997, p 77) mentions yet another frag-
eleventh and twelfth century when the Shaddādids carried
mentary dragon sculpture in the form of a stone block which
out work on the walls and added much of the ornamentation;
was reused in the late Ottoman rebuilding of the western
and to the thirteenth century when the Zakʿarids renewed
wall of the Damascus citadel
the walls Sinclair, 1987, vol 1, pp 360–2; Gierlichs, 1996,
41 Cf the discussion in Herzfeld, 1954–5, pp 236–9
pp 96–8 with further references
42 Cf Otto-Dorn, 1978–9, p 104
dragons on monumental settings in regions west of iran
27
city’s inhabitants,46 the two paired dragon sculp -
terminating in a tight curl The heads have small,
tures probably served as powerful protection
almond-shaped eyes and the cheeks are enlivened
for the citizens of Ani The added potency con-
by fine spiralling motifs A pair of cusped ears
veyed by the symbolism of the dragons flanking a
crowns the heads; the mane is swept back and
bul ’s head is examined in chapter 7 The dragons’
covers the uppermost section of the finely carved
sculpted representations on the Ani towers how-
scaly neck (figs 4a and b) 49
ever show that their symbolism was not restricted
The same khān includes a spring housed in a
to just one religious creed, as Muslims and Chris-
türbe-like building that is circumscribed by an
tians alike made use of the iconography
elaborate muqarnas frieze, comprising a menag-
One of the most striking features of Anatolian
erie of fifteen animals among which is the atypi-
Saljuq architecture is the chain of caravanserais
cal depiction of a single dragon 50 Unusually, the
(khān s ) that link the principal cities of the Sultan-
dragon’s body forms not only a pretzel-like knot
ate of Rūm Their prime function was evidently to
just below the neck but the very long serpentine
service the north-south overland trade, in other
tail is knotted to form a maze of interlace (fig 5)
words to provide for and protect travelling mer-
The dragon’s hide is covered al over with a spotted
chants However, as Michael Rogers has pointed
pattern Its head with wide-open mouth is turned
out, the east-west trade was much less developed
backwards towards a bird perched in an adjacent
and in spite of the increasingly difficult terrain,
niche that holds a round object in its beak It may
the density of distribution of caravanserais east
be reasonable to propose that the accumulation of
of Sivas noticeably decreases Nonetheless, to
knotted interlace in the dragon’s tail symbolised
facilitate trade along the Araxes, the local Geor-
an increase in the protection against evil influ-
gian dynasty built their own chain of caravan-
ences The resulting maze probably denoted the
serais, which appears to have been modelled on
ability to resist disentanglement by Evil Eyes and
the Saljuq system 47
may have been considered as added potency At
The depiction of the dragons on the khān s
the same time the complex tangle ensured that the
afforded further protection for travellers and
innate forces of the dragon itself are also securely
caravans from any evil such as raids A pair of
bound in the maze of its own making Katharina
monumental antithetical dragons are depicted
Otto-Dorn, followed by Gönül Öney, associates
on a deeply carved relief band at the back of the
the reliefs with the twelve animal cycle,51 a view
entrance īwān at Karatay Han on the former trade
which has been challenged by Jean-Paul Roux on
road linking Kayseri with Malatya According to
the basis that the discrepancy between the animals
the epigraphic frieze above the main door, the
depicted on the frieze and the animals associated
khān was built during the reign of sulṭān Ghiyāth
with the twelve animal cycle is too great 52
al-Dīn Kay Khusraw II, son of ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Kay
At the now partly destroyed thirteenth-cen-
Qubādh I, in 638/1240–1 48 The expansive ser-
tury caravanserai, Susuz Han (Susuz Khān), dated
pentine bodies, entirely stylised by three parallel
c 644/1246,53 located about one kilometre south
moulded bands, are formed of a horizontal guil-
of Bucak just off the Burdur-Antalya road, the
loche band which extends to frame the entire arch
ogives of a pair of recessed muqarnas niches that
and interlaces at the apex to form a central circular
flank the portal are each surmounted by a pair of
motif, presumably alluding to stellar symbolism,
antithetically presented dragons in profile The
as will be further discussed below Tongues with
heads of the mythical creatures are crowned by
bifid tips touch the edges of the central motif,
curved horns, they have elongated wide-open
projecting from the toothed jaws of the substantial
snouts ending in curled-up tips, the sinuous necks
dragon heads which are finely carved in profile
are covered with scales and from the protomes
with slightly gaping long wrinkled snouts, the tips
project curved wings and short forelegs At the
46 Al-Aʿlāq al-khaṭīra fī dhikr umarāʾ al-Shaʾm wa ’l-Jazīra,
50 Roux, 1972, pp 386–9, figs 13–5; Önder, 1987,
the part of Aleppo, tr and ed Sourdel, D , Beirut, 1953,
p 595; Gierlichs, 1996, pls 8 3 (complete view of the frieze
p 123, as cited in Meri, 2002, p 206, n 360
with fifteen animals); 9 2 (dragon); Hakkı, ed 2007, p 362,
47 Rogers, 1976, pp 322–6, and idem, “Saldjūḳids,” EI 2
fig 2 (drawing of animal frieze), p 370 (photograph of the
VIII, 936a
frieze)
48 Erdmann, 1961, pp 123–4, no 32
51 Otto-Dorn, 1963, p 143 For a brief discussion of the
49 Cf Öney, 1969a, p 198, fig 10; Roux, 1972, p 393, figs
twelve animal cycle of years, see the Epilogue
16 and 17; Gierlichs, 1996, pl 10 1, 2; Grube and Johns, 2005,
52 Roux, 1972, pp 387–92
p 234, fig 79 2
53 Erdmann, 1961, p 114
28