under his horse’s hooves remained essentially a
shown convincingly that the prostrate figure on
symbol of victory, it also introduced a moral and
these amulets represents a female demon who
spiritual meaning 172
harms children and pregnant women as attested
It is this very motif which provides a link with
by late antique magical sources and that the amu-
the hagiographical iconography of the holy rider
lets served as prophylactic charms against a vari-
vanquishing an enemy which appears on Jewish173
ety of illnesses 178 However, the systematic study
or Christian magical “amulets” that circulated in
of this iconography is complicated by difficul-
the Byzantine world These frequently show on
ties in dating the amulets and by the frequent
the obverse an anonymous rider saint spearing a
absence of legends which would make it possible
prostrate figure, generally represented as female
to identify the equestrian figure The rare accom-
with long hair, who raises her hands in a vain
panying legends invoke Solomon the horseman,
attempt at supplication or defence More rarely
the formidable enemy of demons, and/or Saint
the figure appears to be portrayed with a bare
Sisinnios179 (who is thought to have been a Par-
female torso and what may perhaps be a serpen-
thian),180 permitting identification with either or
tine lower body 174 The choice of a female figure as
both of these figures
the vanquished enemy reflects perhaps the ancient
Through the use of his “magical” seal and other
belief in dangerous female demons which may go
ritual techniques attributed to him, the Jewish
back to the Lilith of Jewish legend 175 Of note is
king Solomon was considered to be the archetypal
that the term Druj,176 the demoness of deceit and
controller of spirits and demons,181 the quintes-
treachery, is applied in later Avestan texts to a
sential warrior-magician, a figure that reflected
whole class of female demons 177 It has also been
a conflation of parallel Jewish, Christian, Greek
172
178
Grabar, 1936, pp 44, 47
Bonner, 1950, pp 210–8; Spier, 1993, pp 25–62,
173 While monotheism and the prohibition of images
esp pp 33–44 For the transmission from early Near Eastern
restrained Jews from developing divine or demonic figural
to Jewish and classical Greek mythology of the belief in a
images, the Second Commandment was not strictly observed
female demon, bringer of harm to children and pregnant
by all Jewish communities Special highlights of Jewish fig-
women, see Barb, 1966, pp 1–23 The aid of Saint Sisinnios
ural art are, for instance, the wall paintings of the third-
is also invoked in Armenian talismanic scrolls against the
century synagogue at Dura Europos (see Rostovtzeff, 1939,
female demon Āl, known throughout the Persian-speaking
p 102) and the mosaics of the sixth-century synagogue of
world, who is believed to be the personification of puerperal
Beth Alpha (Sukenik, 1932)
fever which strikes women in childbed Cf Russell, 2004,
174 For a detailed analysis of this type, see Bonner, 1950,
pp 447–8 On the Āl, see also Goldziher, 1896, vol 1, p 16;
pp 99, 208–21, pls XIV–XVII, nos 294–301, 306, 309, 311,
Winkler, 1931, pp 104–7; and, in particular, the monograph
314, 315, 318, 319, 323–7 Cf Perdrizet, 1903, and idem, 1922;
of Eilers, 1979
179
Peterson, 1926, p 103, 107 (lower illustration); Engemann,
The most elaborate visual representation of the
1975, p 25 and fig 1, p 37 and fig 6, n 111 with references
mounted Saint Sisinnios appears on the seventh- or eighth-
on the so-called seals with Solomon on horseback; Thierry,
century fresco found on the west wall of chapel XVII in the
1999, pp 238–9 and ns 20, drawings 2 a-c; Alexander,
Apa Apollon monastery at Bawīṭ in Upper Egypt where he
1999, pp 1076–1077, fig 32 2 Cf also Bank, A V , Gemma
spears a prostrate female figure identified as the demoness
s izobrazeniem Solomona, Vizantijskij Vremennik 8, Moscow,
“Alabasdria ” Excavated in 1901–2 by Clédat, 1904–6, xii 2,
1956, pp 331–8; as cited in Walter, 1989a, pp 665–6,
pp 79–81; Perdrizet, 1922, pp 13–5; Lewis, 1973, fig 30 (pls
n 57; idem, 2003, fig 14 The reverse of the amulets depict
unnumbered)
180
various scenes, the most common being the representa-
Perdrizet, 1922, p 13; Maguire, 1995, p 57 Peterson
tion of the “all-suffering eye ” The ancient symbol is usually
(1926, p 118) considers the Sisinnios legend to have an
depicted as an eye whose pupil is pierced by various sharp
Iranian origin Rika Gyselen (1995, pp 89–90), moreover,
weapons and attacked by several fierce or noxious animals;
remarks upon the resemblance of the name (and apparent
as portrayed, for instance, at the Dura synagogue (Enge-
function) of Saint Sisinnios and that of the Iranian “mage”
mann, 1975, pp 22–48 and p 27, fig 5; Doro, 1941, pp 220–
Sāsān found on many Sasanian magical seals while excluding
1) Cf Walter, 1989b; Thierry, 1999, p 240 For a recent
the possibility of an inverse influence (on the figure of Sāsān,
study dedicated to Sasanian-period glyptics with this motif
pp 55–6)
181
which however sees the subjects represented on the seals as
Solomon evolved as legendary magician, endowed
having originated in the Mediterranean and the Near Eastern
with exceptional wisdom and believed to be skilled in the art
civilisations, see Magistro, 2000, pp 167–94 For a discus-
of exorcising spirits and demons A detailed description of
sion of Byzantine amulets with a rider saint spearing a pros-
an exorcism is related by the first-century historian Josephus
trate she-demon, see Spier, 1993, pp 25–62, esp pp 60–2,
( Antiquitates Iudaicae 8 45–9) as well as by the late antique
and pl 2, nos a, 15, and b, 21, pl 3, no a, 33 and pl 6,
Testamentum Salomonis, an uncanonical religious text which
no d
appears to be a Christian adaptation of a contemporary
175 Cf Hutter, “Lilith,” DDD, pp 520–1; Bonner, 1950,
demonological Jewish text entirely devoted to Solomon’s
p 210
power over demons (ed from manuscripts at Mount Athos,
176 See, for instance, Bundahishn 2 3 3 23–4; Boyce, 1984,
Bologna, Holkham Hall, Jerusalem, London, Milan, Paris
p 50
and Vienna by McCown, 1922, esp chs 3–18) Cf Bonner,
177 Cf Langton, 1949, p 70; Bonner, 1950, p 210
1950, p 209
the dragon in scenes of combat
105
and Iranian traditions when moreover interest in
individuals as stated by orthodox Zoroastrian-
extraneous doctrines and cults was very active 182
ism),189 as is evidenced by the Qumran texts, early
These visual images of triumph over the enemy
Christianity and all Gnostic religions (Hermeti-
or over the powers of evil were naturally adopted
cism, Gnosticism, Manichaeism) 190 Christianity,
for the presentation of warrior saints,183 the actual
in turn, inherited most of its eschatological per-
systematisation of their cult probably having
spective from the Iranian-inspired apocrypha of
taken place in Constantinople 184 The image of
the Old Testament and the Jewish writings of the
the dragon being trampled by a potent rider’s
period just before its emergence 191
horse, traceable to at least the early seventh cen-
The eschatological concept in the struggle
tury, thus mirrors the symbolic meaning of spiri-
against a dragon in Judaeo-Christian tradition
tual triumph over the persecutions of tyrannical
has close analogies in ancient Iranian texts, cited
pagan rulers, representing the crushing of evil and
above In the Old Testament the resurrection is
Satan through conversion and the destruction of
connected with the myth of Leviathan (Hebrew
pagan temples 185
liwyātān; Ugaritic ltn) who is slain by yahweh and
The close parallels in iconography between
thus plays a role in the eschatological struggle 192
the Iranian and the Judaeo-Christian tradi-
In the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (29 4; perhaps
tions expressing the fundamental juxtaposition
early second century ad) Leviathan together with
between victor and vanquished, however, may in
another mythical monster, Behemoth, rises out
large part be due to the influence of Iranian dual-
of the sea at the coming of the Messiah 193 In the
ist notions on the religions of the Near East from
Apocalypse of John (20 1–3) the “old dragon”
the Achaemenid period to the early centuries of
is identified with Satan, evil incarnate An angel
the present era 186 The strong dualistic character
descends from heaven with a key to the abyss,
of Jewish eschatology, including the belief in the
the underworld, and a chain to fetter the dragon
coming of a saviour (messiah),187 a final struggle
there for one thousand years 194 Once this term
between Good and Evil, and the resurrection
has expired, the dragon is freed to take part in the
of the dead, seems also to suggest the strong possi-
great final struggle in which it will be decisively
bility of a borrowing from Zoroastrian doctrine,188
defeated, resulting in the resurrection of the dead
where according to yasna 30 3–5 the good and
and the coming of a new age in which death and
bad spirits were “twins” (separate, independent
evil are no more 195 Almut Hintze concludes:
182 Bonner, 1950, p 18; Alexander, 1999, p 1077; Walter,
(“serpent”) and mashiaḥ (“messiah”), both being equiva-
2003, p 35; Pancaroğlu, 2004, pp 152–3
lent to 358, therefore by the rules of gematria these words
183 Der Nersessian, 1965, p 24
are considered to have a close affinity The idea that the
184 Walter, 1989a, p 663
serpent-messiah would destroy the evil serpent is expressed
185 Especially during and after the exile of the Jews in
in the thirteenth-century writings of Isaac Cohen of Soria
Babylon, Iranian influence may have been instrumental in
in Spain, published by Scholem, 1926, p 273
188
bringing about the change in the conception of Satan from
The main locus of contacts between Jews and
a servant of God (for instance, in Zechariah, 3 1–3 3) to his
Mazdāyasnians was most likely to be Persia and Babylonia
adversary (Duchèsne-Guillemin, “Ahriman,” EIr) At least in
where Jews lived among the predominantly Persian popula-
part a Jewish apocalyptic movement, the early Christian faith
tion; Hintze, 1999, p 78 Cf Shaked, “Eschatology,” EIr
189
inherited a worldview in which Satan played a vital role as
Boyce, 1975, repr 1996, p 193
190
the ultimate adversary or opponent of God and his agents
Shaked, “Eschatology,” EIr; Gnoli, “Dualism,” EIr Cf
In the visions of John, Satan is portrayed as composite beast,
Zaehner, “Zoroastrianism,” CELF, p 159
191
which emerges from the sea (Daniel 7), drawn from the myth
Shaked, “Eschatology,” EIr
192
of a cosmic struggle between a god and a sea monster or
Isaiah 27 1 Heidel, 1942, repr 1951, p 103; Hintze,
dragon informed by a Mesopotamian mythic pattern (cf also
1999, pp 89–90
193
the general discussion in Gunkel, “Die Drachentraditionen,”
Hintze, 1999, pp 80–1 and n 38 Cf 1 Enoch 60 7
1895, pp 29–90, and “die Traditionen vom Urmeer,” 1895,
Related beliefs are found in Gnostic traditions It is interesting
pp 81–111) to which Satan “gave his power and his throne
to consider a later fourteenth-century Samaritan chronicle
and great authority” (Revelation 13 2) This imagery was
which reverts to earlier Jewish, Christian and Samaritan
used in polemical discourses and played an important role
traditions and relates of the first-century Dositheans: “These
in the “demonisation” of either external enemies or internal
people believed that the Serpent will govern the lives of
adversaries of which the Roman imperial power was a
creatures until the day of resurrection ” See Isser, 1976, p 80
194
designated agent
Cf Hintze, 1999, p 81, n 39 with further examples
186
195
Boyce and Grenet, 1991, pp 361–490; Gnoli, “Dual-
Eadem, p 81, and n 41 Cf parallels in the book of
ism,” EIr; Hintze, 1999, pp 72–9, esp pp 75–6
Revelation (20 1–6) where there appears the story of the
187 In connection with the concept of messianism in
leader of the powers of darkness, also referred to as “the
Judaism it is of interest to note the identification of the
dragon, the primeval serpent, which is the devil and Satan,”
saviour and the serpent, which is supported by the numerical
being overpowered and cast into the abyss by an angel who
equivalence of the Hebrew letters of the words naḥash
“sealed it over him, to make sure that he would not deceive
106