mouths of a powerful bicephalous dragon, elabo-
role of dragon-slayer 215 Prior to the eleventh cen-
rately speckled, who rears up diagonally across
tury Saint George is almost invariably depicted
the space between the two horses; the larger of
in combat with a man Then during the eleventh
the two dragon heads is horned (fig 106) 210 Just
century the visual expression alters and the saint
above the two dragon heads is a cross with an
is increasingly represented slaying a dragon 216
inscription running on either side that establishes
The earliest dated and visually identifiable rep-
a semantic relation between the idea of Christ’s
resentation of Saint George, killing a man and
triumph over evil on the cross and the victory of
not yet a dragon, seems to be a relief depiction
the saints over the dragon 211 The pictorial and
on the façade of the Armenian church dedicated
textual elements in the composition of this paint-
to the Holy Cross which stands on the small
ing above an entrance have been interpreted as
island of Aghtʿamar situated southeast of Lake
apotropaic in intention
Van (now in eastern Turkey), erected by king
A related composition is found on a relief frieze
Gagik Artsruni, ruler of the southern Armenian
on the western entrance to the Georgian church
kingdom of Vaspurakan between the years 915
of the Virgin in Martʿvili, founded by king George
to 921 217 In addition to Saint George, two further
II of Aphkhasia (912–957) Here two confronted
mounted warrior saints, Theodore and Sergios,
unidentified holy riders with fluttering cloaks
are portrayed The rendition of three equestrian
are shown to spear the raised gaping heads of a
saints, an example of the serialisation of the
massive twice looped bicephalous scaled dragon
images, again il ustrates the intent to amplify their
(fig 107) 212 As in the wall painting at yılanlı
role visually and thereby intensify their benefi-
kilise, one of the dragon heads is larger, has a
cial effect as apotropaic devices The Armenian
more pronouncedly curved upper snout and is
martyr Saint Sergios, traditionally considered the
crowned by what appear to be long pointed ears
defender par excellence against all kinds of evil
A pair of winged figures, probably angels, hover
and dangers, was here added to the commonly
on either side of the riders, extending to them
paired military saints Theodore and George He is
crowns from the arc of heaven that were won by
the martyrs for their courage in the struggle with
depicted kil ing a feline, probably a panther, while
demons and invisible enemies 213
Saint George tramples a supine fettered human
Among the military saints Theodore and
figure that in eleventh-century legends is some-
George were predominantly associated with
times identified as his persecutor, the emperor
the miracle of dragon-slaying and often appear
Diocletian (fig 108) 218 Saint Theodore is shown
together 214 In the hagiographical tradition, Saint
thrusting a lance into the upraised open mouth
Theodore clearly preceded Saint George in the
of a dragon, portrayed without wings or legs, its
210 This visual differentiation between the two dragon-
present-day Avkat) His exploit of vanquishing a dragon with
heads might also indicate two different identities Cf
a spear only appeared in the second state of his Passio Prima
Thierry, 1999, p 234 See also eadem, 2002, p 155 A visit
(dated 890); Bibliographica hagiographica graeca, 1762d in
to the church in October 2008 showed that the imagery was
Paris graec 1470 Walter, 1995, p 309 and n 87, and idem,
effaced to the point of being barely recognisable
2003, p 50 and n 38 Cf Hengstenberg, 1912, pp 78–106,
211 An inscription above the cross states the words that
241–80; “Theodore Teron,” ODB, vol 3, pp 2048–9 Some
are uttered by the pierced serpent heads: “Cross, who made
antecedents of Theodore’s dragon-slaying feat may be found
you shine? The Christ, he who is struck in me!” Thierry (1999,
in the seventh-century Passion of Marina of Antioch Cf
p 234) interprets these words as the serpent, the personifica-
Merkelbach, “Drache,” RAC IV, 1959, pp 246–7; Boul-
tion of evil and death, recognising the defeat inflicted upon it
houl, 1994, pp 255–304, esp p 263; Thierry, 1999, p 242,
by Christ through his death
n 52
212
216
Cf Aladaşvili, 1977, pp 48–56, 150–1, pls 149, 150;
Thierry, 1999, p 241 The earliest dated example of
Thierry, 1999, p 240 and n 40, fig 5
Saint George piercing a dragon is depicted in Cappadocia at
213 Walter, 1995, p 301; Thierry, 1999, p 243 and n 64
the church of Saint Barbara at Soğanli (1006 or 1021) See
214 Walter, 1995, and idem, 1999 See also, idem, 2003,
De Jerphanion, 1925–1942, vol 2, pl 189 2; Thierry, 1999,
pp 44–66 and 109–44 For a discussion of the cult of saints,
p 241 It is noteworthy, however, that in Cappadocia George
in particular the cult of Saint George, in Georgia, see Schrade,
was never represented as killing a man; cf Walter, 2003,
2001, pp 169–98
p 128 The fullest repertory of Georgian representations of
215 There are two saints called Theodore in the Ortho-
Saint George piercing a human figure with his lance is given
dox tradition: Theodore Tyron (“the recruit”) and Theodore
by Tschubinashvili, G N , Georgian Repoussé Work, Tbilissi,
Stratelates (“the general”) On the confusion between the two
1957, cited after Walter, 1989a, p 665
217
Theodores, see Oikonomidès, 1981, pp 327–35 The legend
Cf Der Nersessian, 1965, p 19, figs 49, 50
218
of the Theodore Tyron mentions that he was “born in an
Scholz, 1982, p 242 and n 1; Walter, 1989a, p 665,
eastern land” and died in Amaseia (Amasya), in present-
and idem, 2003, p 56 and n 64, and p 129 and ns 125 and
day Turkey (from where his remains were taken to Euchaita,
126
the dragon in scenes of combat
109
body patterned with spots and tied into a heart-
It describes how Saint George stopped at a lake
shaped knot (fig 109) 219 The warrior saints hold
where he saw a weeping girl about to be sacrificed
long cross-ended lances and are portrayed in full
to the dragon and there performed the miracle
military attire according to iconographic types
of vanquishing the dragon; thereafter the saint
derived mainly from elements borrowed from
accompanies the princess who leads the dragon
antiquity, such as the chlamys tied on the right
on a leash towards the city of Lasnia while her
shoulder, the cuirass, short tunic and buskins 220
father, king Selenios, and the citizens look on The
An early eleventh-century depiction of paired
miraculously subdued beast is tamed and sym-
confronted horsemen, identified here as the two
bolically tied to a leash and led about, a crucial
saints George and Theodore, spearing respec-
detail that establishes the ceremonial and ritual
tively an anthropomorphic figure and a twice-
of the subjection of the dragon The earliest dated
looped dragon and surmounted by a stern
manuscript in which this story is illustrated is
image of Christ, appears twice on the church of
also found in Georgia at Pavnisi ( c 1170–1180) 226
Nikʿorcʿminda built during the last years of Bagrat
However there are other Georgian examples that
III’s reign (1010–1014) in the mountainous region
can be dated earlier on stylistic grounds: Adish
of western Georgia, in the province of Racha
(late eleventh century),227 Bočʿorma ( c 1100),228
(fig 110) 221 The scene is once shown on the large
and possibly Ikʾvi (twelfth century) 229 Thereafter
tympanum over the western portal and again on
the dragon miracle was incorporated as a regu-
the eastern façade
lar feature in the iconographical repertoire of
The belief in the saints’ power to vanquish evil
Saint George yet in Greek the miracle of the
probably inspired the representation of the motif
dragon is first attested in a late twelfth-century
on the interior and the exterior of churches and
manuscript as an appendix to an account of the
funerary structures Its recurrent depiction in
Passion of Saint George, and in a roughly con-
the Transcaucasian region, notably on Georgian
temporary illustration from Anargyroi in Kasto-
churches, attests to the great importance accorded
ria ( c 1180) 230 It is therefore very possible that
to the motif Dragon-slaying riders were progres-
sively identified as warrior saints and can conclu-
the story of Saint George and the dragon miracle
sively be interpreted as exercising an apotropaic
originated in the Transcaucasian region, probably
or protective function 222
in Georgia, from where it spread 231
The legend of Eastern Christendom’s best
The depiction of the saintly dragon-slayer on a
known and most venerated dragon-slayer, who
funerary stele from Maraş in southeast Anatolia,
also enjoyed considerable popularity in the Latin
now in the Archaeological Museum of Adana,232
West, partly as a result of the Crusades,223 is first
attests to the continued importance of the motif A
attested in the eleventh century when miracles
beardless rider distinguished by a circular nimbus
were introduced into the Saint George cycle which
and with fluttering scarf is shown to hold a lance
includes the feat of rescuing a princess from a
in both hands and thrust it into the large gaping
dragon 224 One such typical story is recorded in
jaws of a dragon, depicted with backward thrown
an eleventh-century Georgian manuscript pre-
head and short forelegs, that succumbs at his feet
served in the Patriarchal Library, Jerusalem 225
The dragon’s body is rendered according to the
219 The cross-ends of his lance are broken off Cf Der
the translation into Russian (Privalova, 1977, p 73 and
Nersessian, 1965, p 19
n 57)
220
226
Walter, 2003, p 22
A thrice-looped dragon; Privalova, 1977, pp 16–7, 19,
221 Baltrušaitis, 1929, pl LXVII, fig 108; Neubauer, 1976,
fig 5 (line drawing) Cf Thierry, 1999, p 241, n 50
227
fig 57; Aladaşvili, 1977, pp 147, 158–9, pl 156; Thierry,
Undulant dragon; Privalova, 1977, p 77, fig 18 (line
1999, pp 244, fig 6 The bas-relief on the eastern façade is
drawing), pl XVIII, figs 1, 2
228
reproduced in Scholz, 1982, fig 2
On account of the weathered surface, the drawing is
222 Cf Walter, 1989a, p 665
too indistinct to identify whether the body was looped or
223 The town Ludd (Lydda) in Palestine to the southeast
knotted; eadem, p 83, fig 20 (line drawing)
229
of Jaffa is traditionally believed to be the birthplace of Saint
Horned undulant dragon with long, flaring snout and
George Cf Sharon, “Ludd,” EI 2 V, 798b
goatee beard; eadem, p 80, fig 19 (line drawing), pl XIX,
224 Walter, 1995, pp 320–2, and idem, 2003, pp 128–9;
figs 1, 2 Reproduced in Walter, 1989b, p 357, fig 3
230
Schrade, 2001, p 177, n 56
Aufhauser, 1911, pp 31–3; Walter, 1989b, pp 350–1
225
231
Georgian manuscript, datable to the eleventh cen-
Walter, 1989b, p 351, and idem, 1995, p 322
232
tury, Greek Patriarchal Library, Jerusalem, cod 2 The
Height 56 cm, width 30 cm, thickness 4 cm Adana,
Geor gian text has been translated into English by Walter
Archaeological Museum, inv no 76B Süslü, 1987, p 638,
(1995, pp 321–2 and idem, 2003, p 141) on the basis of
pl 118, ill 1
110