tyrant rulers who had martyred Christian saints
der-length tresses Her head is surmounted by a
were depicted with a serpent as a symbol of evil 86
large composite star-rosette that has an elaborate
What appears to be an abbreviated formula
centre, from which radiates one row of cusped
or contracted version of the motif of the full-
petals, which may have conveyed a special sig-
length human figure or bust flanked by two ser-
nificance, possibly with astral or royal connota-
pents as shown on the tenth-century cathedral
tions 91 Khalʿpakhʿchian has suggested a protective
of the Holy Apostles in Kars (figs 118 and 119),
function of the motif of the human head between
is found three times on the façade of the central
dragons, since the latter are regarded by Arme-
monument of the fortified monastic complex of
nians as protectors of homes (shahapet s ), serpent
Tatʿev, located in Siunikʿ province in southeastern
genii of places 92
Armenia The church, dedicated to the Saints Paul
The widespread use of the symbol of open-
and Peter (Surb Poghos Petros), was constructed
mouthed dragons flanking a human head is also
by the order of prince Ashotʿ of Siunikʿ under the
attested by its use in twelfth-century Armenian
supervision of bishop Ter Hohannes between 895
manuscripts It is shown as an element attached
and 906 87 Erected nearly half a century earlier
to ornate initials, such as in the loop of the initial
than the imagery on the cathedral of the Holy
in the Cilician Gospels of Luke and of Matthew
Apostles in Kars, three frontally rendered mask-
(Baltimore, Walters Art Gallery Ms 538), written
like heads are framed on either side by horizon-
in 1193 for the Bishop Ter Karapet, at the mon-
tally oriented dragons whose bodies form a single
astery of Paughoskan near the fortress of Katen
loop
in the region of Mlich (fig 123) 93 Here the mask-
On the eastern façade of the Paul and Peter
like human head is bracketed by dragon heads,
church the human heads with prominent ears88
which, like those flanking the heads at Tatʿev,
are flanked by long slender pairs of dragons, while
are similarly portrayed with open jaws ending
on the northern façade a crowned moustachioed
in prominently curled-up tips
head is framed by two shorter and more volumi-
The theme of symmetrically doubled dragons
nous dragons All of the creatures are portrayed
flanking a human head appears on other three-
with mouths ajar, revealing a row of sharp teeth
dimensional constructions recorded in the Islamic
as well as projecting tongues, which touch the
world, such as at the thirteenth-century caravan-
ears of the heads 89
serai Susuz Han, dated c 644/1246, situated near
The Armenian historian Stepʿanos Ōrbēlian
Bucak, examined above At the khān the symbol-
has interpreted the heads as belonging to the
ism is shown twice, mirrored above two muqarnas
donors of the church; the mustachioed head
niches flanking the main portal, effectively once
on the north façade, Grigor Supan, the ruler of
again doubling the visual impact of the potent
Gegharkʿunikʿ (fig 120), as well as the two heads
motif (fig 124, detail of one muqarnas niche)
on the east façade, prince Ashotʿ (fig 121) and
Just like the above-discussed Armenian dragon
his wife Shushan (fig 122) 90 The head identified
heads, those at Susuz Han are portrayed in the
as that of princess Shushan is framed by shoul-
so-called “Saljuq-style ”
86 When a first word of a Passion was the name of an
ing the tradition of Iranian motifs seen to decorate the
emperor who had martyred a saint, the evil ruler might be
Parthian palace of Hatra in the Mesopotamian desert (cf
depicted in the initial letter as being strangled by a serpent
Ghirshman, 1962, p 36, fig 49), which were also discovered
(Patterson Ševčenko, 1990, p 193), emperors or crowned fig-
at Hamadan (ancient Ecbatana) and at Qum south of Tehran
ures may be encircled by a serpent ( eadem, p 90), or, as in
(cf idem, p 38, fig 52), which originally had an apotropaic
the case of the Roman emperor Trajan, portrayed as holding
character but became an ornamental motif in the classical
a serpent in his hand ( eadem, p 155)
period (Der Nersessian, 1965, p 26)
87 Cf Garsoïan, 1994, p 11
89 Khalʿpakhʿchian, 1980, pp 173–4, fig 6 (line drawing
88 It is interesting to note that comparable mask-like
of three reliefs), fig 8 (forth relief) Russell, 2004, p 560 and
heads, similarly cut off immediately above the neck, appear
n 21, p 631, pp 1168, 1181, pl 3
on several Armenian sacred buildings dating from the
90 As cited in Khalʿpakhʿchian, 1980, p 164
tenth to the thirteenth century They appear for instance
91 For a discussion of the significance of the rosette motif
among the vine branches at the Armenian church of the
in the early Persian, Sasanian and Umayyad period, see
Holy Cross at Aghtʿamar, a few are included among the
Ettinghausen, 1972, pp 36–41
animal friezes, and two continuous rows of mask-like
92 Khalʿpakhʿchian, 1980, p 164 On the Armenian
human female and male heads appear under the eaves on
shahapet s, see p 56, n 66
the north and south walls of the west exedra of the church
93 Der Nersessian, 1973, pp 6–9, 85–6, pl C and figs
(Der Nersessian, 1965, p 26, figs 16, 40) Sirarpie Der
13–29; for the ornate initial of the Gospel of Matthew, see
Nersessian has identified these schematic heads as follow-
fig 34
the dragon in relation to royal or heroic figures
121
Paired dragons flanking a central motif are also
of the tongues, the creatures emit vegetal scrolls
featured on other architectural elements such as a
bearing split palmettes and buds The dragons’
thirteenth-century carved wooden door, discussed
mouths thus seem to emit the foliage This forms
below, probably from the Tigris region, now pre-
an interlaced composition surmounting the pret-
served in the Museum für Islamische Kunst in
zel-knot which in turn intertwines with the ophid-
Berlin The gaping “Saljuq-style” dragons’ mouths
ian bodies The same manuscript yields further
similarly flank a smal central medal ion that con-
initial letters and marginal ornaments with varia-
tains a heavily abraded motif, perhaps once rep-
tions of the same theme An example of the former
resenting a human bust (fig 153)
are two dragons in mirror image springing from
Instead of a human head as central element
vegetation and touching the foliage with the tips
held by open-mouthed dragons, the mythical
of their outstretched tongues (fig 127) and of
creatures similarly flank an inscription, a veg-
the latter, a closely-related imagery showing the
etal composition or an animal head, for instance
beasts touching each other’s tongue tips (fig 128);
that of a bull or a lion The close link between the
correspondingly, a scrolling vegetal stalk bear-
blessings expressed in an inscription and images
ing palmettes and split-palmettes is shown with
of fructifying vegetation is evidenced in paral-
a single dragon head growing out of the foliage
lel depictions on the handles of the previously
and biting into the stalk at mid-section (fig 129)
mentioned Bobrinski and Fould inlaid copper
yet another analogous motif is represented by
alloy buckets The handle loops of the former
the previously discussed relief sculptures on the
are made in the form of dragon protomes from
stone minaret buttresses of the mid-thirteenth-
whose gaping mouths spring the central four-
century Çifte Minare madrasa at Erzurum How-
sided arched section Benedictory inscriptions
ever here a pair of dragon protomes issues from
appear in naskhī on two sides and in Kufic on the
the stem of a palm tree in such a way that they
top band of the handle with the date muḥarram
come to flank the central vegetation with its
559/December 1163 On the outside the loops
small birds and the double-headed eagle at its
are flanked by leaping lions (fig 56) The handle
apex (fig 43)
loops on the Fould bucket are made of arched
As has been shown above, in lieu of an inscrip-
dragons topped at the outside by projecting lion-
tion or vegetation dragons with gaping mouths
headed knobs From the dragons’ open mouths
flank Christian crosses on architectural repre-
emerges the six-sided arched handle, decorated
sentations such as on the vishap-type khatchkʿar
on all facets with scrolling foliage in place of the
(fig 46) or on the lintel of a door at the Mon-
benedictory inscriptions shown on the Bobrinsky
astery of Deir Mār Behnām in Mosul (figs 17
handle (fig 57)
a and b, 50) as well as on ornaments in Cilician
In a similar manner an inverted pendant pal-
Armenian Gospel books (figs 45 and 47) Hence
mette is flanked by open-mouthed dragon heads
it appears less likely that the dragons framing
inserted in the loop of the initial letter on the
the Christian emblems are intended to be read as
first page of a twelfth-century Armenian Gospel
threatening or even less as ingesting the crosses
of Matthew (fig 125) Further related imagery is
It may rather be presumed that, conversely, as in
shown in a marginal ornament portrayed in the
the case of vegetation or benedictory inscriptions,
important Mush Homiliary, discussed earlier,
the mythical creatures are depicted with crosses
transcribed and illuminated at the monastery of
issuing from their mouths, perhaps suggesting the
Avagvankʿ near Erznga(n) in northeastern Ana-
active association of the dragons with this symbol
tolia in 1200 to 1202 94 In this illumination the
of spiritual deliverance This would suggest a role
excessively long looped ophidian bodies of two
for them not only as guardians but one may cau-
dragons form a pretzel-like knot at mid-section
tiously hypothesise perhaps even as rescuers or
(fig 126) 95 Their wide-open mouths revealing
deliverers, drawing on associations with the idea
sharp teeth are oriented upwards, and in place
of Christ the Saviour and Deliverer
94 Cf Izmailova, T A , “Edesskaia rukopis 1171 goda (M
and their open snouts with curled tips emit what appears
313),” Kultura i iskusstvo nardo vostoka 8, Trudi gosudarst-
to be curving foliage See Thierry, 1987, p 408, fig 362
vennogo Orgena Lenina Ermitazha, 19, Leningrad, 1978,
95 For a closely related marginal ornament, see the Gospel
pp 98–9, fig 14, as cited in Der Nersessian and Agemian,
book, copied on paper, 275 fols , dated 1331, transcribed and
1993, p 31 The interlace has close analogies to a vishap-
illuminated in the village of Agheth (Bzhnunikʿ) by the scribe
type khatchkʿar from yovhannavank ʿ, Ararat, dated 1171, on
Hovhannes Kʿahanay (the priest) Mnatsakanyan, 1955,
which the pair of stylised dragons form a central interlace
p 516, fig 1021
122