Sanskrit astrological texts were translated into
scholars,16 who in turn maintained contact with
Pahlawī in the Central Asian world, according to
their Indian counterparts 17
David Pingree, in particular in Sind and Afghani-
In fact both sciences, astronomy ( ʿilm al-hayʾa,
stan 11 During the last centuries of Sasanian rule
the “science of the figure (of the heavens)” or ʿilm
the influence of the sciences of astronomy and
al-falak, “science of the spheres”) and astrology
astrology, which were often a synthesis of Helle-
( ʿilm al-nujūm, the “science of the stars”), were for
nistic and Indian theories, was particularly preva-
a long time so close that the word munajjim was
lent The works of many early Islamic astrologers,
used to designate both astrologer and astrono-
many of whom were Iranians or Central Asians, in
mer 18 This is based on the fact that, according
turn incorporated numerous Indian astronomical
to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (known to the Latins as
and astrological theories This is reflected in the
Geber),19 one of the main representatives of earlier
works of the ninth-century astrologer Abū Maʿshar
Arabic alchemy, “the astrologer must be a math-
Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿUmar (d 272/886)
ematician; he must have mastery of astronomy,
from Balkh who combines in his Zīj al-hazārāt
this is a part of ʿilm al-nujūm (the “science of
(“The Zij of the Thousands”) Hindu, Sasanian and
the stars” or astrology) For ʿilm al-hayʾa (astron-
Hellenistic astronomical and astrological tradi-
omy) is the description of the situation of the
tions, claiming to have used an ancient Persian
state of the sky and what it contains (ṣūrat waḍʿ
text from antediluvian times written during the
al-falak wa-mā fīhi), whereas astrology is the gift
reign of Ṭahmūrath (Av Takhma Urupi), the
of the stars (ʿaṭāʾ al-kawākib) 20 Astrology, which
second king of the Pīshdādian dynasty of leg-
involves calculating the position of the planets and
endary epic Iranian history 12 Ibn al-Nadīm quotes
the mathematical production of horoscopes, is
passages from Abū Maʿshar’s Kitāb ikhtilāf al-zījāt
often referred to as judicial (or catarchic) astrol-
(“The Book on the Variations among zīj s”), which
ogy ( ʿilm aḥkām al-hayʾa, the “science of the judg-
contain calculations determining the movement
ment of the stars”) 21
of the planets:
Astrological predictions consisted not only of
determining the fate of an individual ( mawālīd,
The people of the time of Ṭahmūrath and the
“genethlialogy,” or horoscopic astrology) and of
more ancient Persians called these the “cycles of
the auspicious and inauspicious timing of events
the thousands”; and the wise men of India and
and actions ( ikhtiyārāt, “choices”), but also of
their kings, the ancient kings of Persia, and the
the application of continuous horoscopes for
ancient Chaldeans who lived in Babylon deter-
determining the course of events for a country or
mined the mean longitudes of the seven planets
dynasty or to answer specific questions ( masāʾil,
by means of them, preferring them over others
“interrogations”) 22
because of their accuracy and brevity 13
In spite of the fact that astrology stood in
The translation movement of the early ʿAbba-
fundamental opposition to the tenets of the
sid period saw an unprecedented level of activ-
Islamic religion,23 it gradually established a role
ity in the sciences of astronomy and astrology
in the public life of Islamic rulers 24 Well-known
This had a profound effect on social attitudes 14
astrologers included, for instance, Māshāʾallāh
Indeed astronomy was viewed by scholars as the
ibn Atharī, an Iranian Jew from Basra, and
“mistress of all sciences ”15 The strong astrological
Abū Sahl al-Faḍl ibn Nawbakht, an Iranian,
tradition in the Sasanian period helps to explain
who converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam
why the field of Arabic astrological literature in
at the court of the second ʿAbbasid caliph Abū
the early Islamic period was dominated by Iranian
Jaʿfar al-Manṣūr (r 136/754–158/775) Both
horoscopes, see Kennedy and Pingree, 1971, p vi; see also
Pingree, 1968, pp 3–4
14
Russell, 2004, p 85 and n 11
Cf Gutas, 1998, pp 108–10
11
15
Pingree, 1963, pp 242–3
Ullmann, 1972, p 277, n 5
12
16
The legendary history of king Ṭahmūrath is recorded,
Idem, pp 296–7 and n 6
17
for instance, by al-Thaʿālibī in his Taʾrīkh Ghurar al-siyar
Gutas, 1998, p 15
18
(tr and ed Zotenberg, 1900, pp 7–10) in which he also
Fahd, “Munadjdjim,” EI² VII, 557b
19
describes the kings’s subjugation of Iblīs demonstrated by his
On Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, see Sezgin, 1971, pp 132–269
20
using Iblīs as mount to perambulate the world Cf Pingree,
Idem
21
1963, pp 243–4 and idem, 1968, pp 3–4 and n 3 The culture
Savage-Smith, 2004, p xxxvii
22
hero Takhma Urupi riding Angra Mainyu as his horse from
Fahd, “Nudjūm, Aḥkām al-,” EI² VIII, 105b; Savage-
one end of the earth to the other is mentioned twice in the
Smith, 2004, p xxxvii; Saliba, 1992, pp 56–63
23
Avesta (yasht 15 11–2, 19 28–9)
Saliba, 1992, pp 45–67; Michot, 2004, pp 277–340
13
24
Kitāb al-Fihrist, Cairo, n d , pp 348–50, cited after
Gutas, 1998, pp 33–4
the dragon and astrology
135
astrologers were leading astrological advisors
period immediately preceding Islam The major
to this caliph and instrumental in drawing up a
assemblies of the Sogdians (anvāzak), whose
horoscope for him determining the day (4 Rabīʿ
responsibilities included proclaiming the new
al-Thānī 145/30 July 762) on which the construc-
king, were composed not only of local rulers and
tion of the city of Baghdad should begin The Irano-
ecclesiastical dignitaries but also of astrologers
phile ʿAbdallāh al-Maʾmūn (r 198/813–218/833)
and soothsayers 29 During their campaigns, the
was the son of Hārūn al-Rashīd by an Iranian
Turkic Ghaznawid sulṭān s, Maḥmūd and Masʿūd
slave girl and after his father’s death in 193/809
were accompanied by their astrologers 30 At the
ruled over the eastern half of the caliphate resid-
battle of Dandānaqān in 431/1040, the victorious
ing in Khurasan After overthrowing his brother
Saljuqs had an astrologer (munajjim) with them,
al-Amīn, who ruled over the western half, in a
who was rewarded, presumably on account of
civil war, al-Maʾmūn became caliph in Marw in
his correct prognostications, when Ṭoghrıl pro-
198/813 and ruled the caliphate from that city for
claimed himself ruler of Khurasan 31 Soothsay-
another five years, during which time he gathered
ing qualities are also attested for members of
around him astronomers from Ferghana, Chach,
the ruling house, for according to Ibn al-Athīr,
Khwārazm and greater Khurasan 25 In his cele-
even Ṭoghrıl’s cousin, Qutulmish ibn Arslan
brated historical work al-Masʿūdī reports that
Isrāʾīl, had astrological skills 32
under the influence of his Iranian vizier al-Faḍl
Astrologers from greater Khurasan are known
ibn Sahl Zadhānfarūkh (d 202/818), al-Maʾmūn:
to have moved to the courts of the Rūm Saljuqs
of Anatolia Among them was the mother of the
used to spend time investigating astrological rul-
thirteenth-century chronicler Ibn Bībī, known as
ings and prognostications, following what the
al-Bībī al-Munajjima (“the lady, the astrologer”),
stars prescribed, and modeling his conduct on
who was from Nīshāpūr and working as astrologer
that of the past Sāsānian emperors like Ardashīr
at the court of the Khwārazm-shāh Jalāl al-Dīn
ibn Bābak [Ardashīr Pāpakān I, r 224–41] and
others 26
There she met an ambassador of the Rūm Saljuq
sulṭān ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Kay Qubādh I of Konya The
When he moved to Baghdad in 204/819, he was
meeting made such an impression on the ambas-
followed by a host of astronomers and astrolo-
sador that he informed the Saljuq sulṭān and in
gers 27 The pervasive role that astrology played
due course the family was invited to the court in
may be seen in the example of the vizier Ibn
Konya where she successfully predicted a mili-
Muqla (d 328/940) who, upon the advice of the
tary victory 33 The services of the astrologer would
astrologers, arranged his meeting with the caliph
frequently be requested before the undertaking
al-Rāḍī (322/934–329/940) when the Moon was in
of any important action The astrologer Shams
the zodiac sign Leo governed by the Sun, consid-
al-Dīn, for instance, is said to have determined the
ered the most auspicious time to meet for secre-
time of the military offensive under the Ayyubid
tive affairs
al-Kāmil Nāṣir al-Dīn (r 615/1218–635/1238) 34
The science of the celestial bodies was thus
Like their eastern cousins, the Great Saljuqs, some
of such significance for Islamic rulers that most
Rūm Saljuq rulers, such as Malik ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn
of their decisions were governed by astrological
Dāwud Shāh, also practised the science of astrol-
considerations 28 This predisposition was equally
ogy themselves 35 Hence throughout medieval
prevalent among rulers of Turkic stock and is
Islamic history the science remained popular,
also attested for the Sogdians (who were closely
astrological practices being patronised not only
associated with the Turkic empires and played the
by members of princely circles but by most seg-
role of active agents of cultural interaction) in the
ments of Islamic society 36
25
30
Al-Najaf, al-Maṭbaʿa al-Haydariyya, 1368/1949, p 133,
Bosworth, 1963, p 118
31
cited after Saliba, 1992, pp 58 and n 78
Idem, p 217 and n 40
26
32
Kitāb murūj al-dhahab (“Meadows of Gold”), tr and
Idem, p 217
33
ed Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille, 1861–77,
Ibn Bībī, al-Awāmir al-ʿalāʾiyya, tr Duda, 1959, pp 2–4,
vol 8, pp 300–1
187–8
27
34
Akhmedov, 2000, p 195
Ibn Shaddād, al-Aʿlāq al-khaṭīra, vol 3, 2, pp 552–3,
28 Cf idem, p 199
cited after Saliba, 1992, p 58, n 81
29
35
Vessantara Jātaka 64, 1a–4a, cited after Widengren,
Ibn Bībī, al-Awāmir al-ʿalāʾiyya, tr Duda, 1959, p 150
36
1969, p 117 and n 61
Saliba, 1992, pp 45–67
136