b The dragon in medieval Islamic astrology
The idea that these phenomena were caused by
a body whose head and tail intercept the Sun’s
The idea that eclipses of the Sun and the Moon
and the Moon’s light was probably related to the
were caused by the interference of an eclipse
emergence of definite ideas as to the nature of the
monster was widely held throughout the Eur-
orbits of the Sun and the Moon and their oppo-
asian continent and can be traced back to remote
site points of intersection between the Moon’s
antiquity 37 The fearful monster, which quenched
orbit and the ecliptic 41 The classical theory of
the light of the supreme luminaries by seizing
the dragon myth seems to have been modified
them in its jaws, was general y conceived as a giant
in accordance with developments in astrological
serpent or dragon, an iconography thought to be
doctrine at least from late Arsacid and Sasanian
of oriental origin 38 Its function was thus seen to
times onwards 42 Sasanian astrologers received
be that of threatening and “devouring,” as well as
from India the notion of Rāhu, a celestial serpent
“delivering” and protecting the great luminaries
whose head (siras) and tail (ketu) cause solar and
at certain irregular intervals 39
lunar eclipses 43 In Pahlawī Rāhu was referred to
A number of theories arose to explain the drag-
as Gōchihr, his head sar, and his tail dumb; in
on’s role in the phenomena of solar and lunar
Arabic, the latter were respectively called raʾs
eclipses and lunar waxing and waning Khāleqī-
and dhanab 44 The great treatise on horoscopic
Moṭlaq offers the following summary:
astrology of the first-century Hellenistic astrolo-
ger Dorotheus of Sidon, which was first translated
a dragon comes up from hell every month on
into Persian in the third century and into Arabic
the eastern side of the sky and swallows a piece
in the eighth century, contains a chapter (V, 43)
of the moon’s disc every night until the night
comes when no part of the moon can be seen
entitled “on clarifying the phases of the moon
Then the moon-god kills the dragon from inside
and the head of the dragon and its tail ” It states
its belly and triumphantly re-emerges In later
that “the head is called the “ascending” and its
times, however, the sun took over the moon’s
tail the “descending” and the signs which those
role in the celestial combats, and it was the sun
learned in the stars call “obscured” are from Leo
which slew the dragon and rescued the moon
to Capricorn …”45
from the dragon’s belly twelve times every year 40
Astrology also offered support for Zoroas-
trian apocalyptic ideas, according to which
Vestiges of these and related beliefs survive in
the planetary bodies were regarded as evil; the
Persian poetry and will be cited below
37 Hartner, “Al-Djawzahar,” EI² II, 501b Cf Massé, 1938,
2006, p 240 In the Rigveda (5 40 5–9) Rāhu is known as a
vol 1, p 172
demonic being, Svàr-bhānu-, which is said to have pierced
38 In ancient Babylon “the 28th of the month was a day
the Sun with darkness In post-Vedic mythology Svàr-bhānu-
of lamentations when prayers of penitence were offered,
is replaced by Rāhu-, his name sometimes being conferred
because the moon had disappeared from view and was to
upon the latter; Svàr-bhānu- perhaps meaning “who has
remain hidden for a few days in the power of the dragon ”
the effulgence of the sun” or “who is affected by the efful-
Green, 1992, p 29; Hartner, 1938, p 132, n 24 The “Chal-
gence of the sun ” Advanced knowledge of periodical eclipses
deans” considered the dragon to have been created even
of the sun and the moon led to the belief in two demonic
before the constellations and the planets, and guarding over
beings, the red Rāhu- and the black Ketu- See Scherer, 1953,
the universe with its head towards the sunrise and its tail to
pp 100–1 Representations of Rāhu in a narrative context
the sunset Mackenzie, 1964, p 525, and idem, “Gozihr,” EIr
begin to appear in Indian art slightly earlier than his iconic
39 Hartner, 1938, p 131 Cf Daneshvari, 1993, p 20 See
portrayal as a member of the planetary deities One of the
also the Babylonian Talmudic tract Avodah Zarah (“Mishna
earliest known portrayals of Rāhu being in a relief of the
on Idolatry,” VIII a) in which the dragon is portrayed as
“Churning of the Ocean” carved over the façade of the door-
devouring the sun See also Epstein, 1997, p 76
way of cave temple number nineteen at Udayagiri in the
40 Khāleqī-Moṭlaq, “Aždahā II,” EIr
Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh, which probably dates
41 Khareghat, 1914, p 129
from c 430 to 450 The planet is shown as a large horrific
42 See Panaino, 2005, pp 73–89, esp 74–5, who discusses
head with bulging eyes with a fierce, demonic expression
the Zoroastrian practice of deducing omens through
turned to the right, his hands probably cupped together with
ophiomancy (that is to say, divination by serpents) which
palms facing upward in the gesture of scooping the elixir
was linked with astral elements In this connection it is
of immortality (on the legend, see the discussion below)
interesting to consider the reference of the fifth-century
Williams, 1982, p 87 and pl 117
44
Armenian theologian, Eznik of Koghb ( Elc alandocʿ, tr and
Pingree, 2006, p 240
45
ed Mariès and Mercier, 1959, p 641, ch 291) to the pre-
Dorothei Sidonii Carmen Astrologicum, tr and ed Pin-
Christian belief which saw the heavenly bodies as deities
gree, D , Leipzig, 1976, p 322, cited by Beck, 2004, p 172
when they worshipped venomous creatures, whereby he
Jews writing in Hebrew utilised the terms ro’sh or rather
implicitly appears to associate astrolatry with ophiolatry
zanav hat-tᵉli or hat-tannin for raʾs and dhanab, whereas it
43 For an analysis of the origin of the concept of Rāhu,
was known in the Byzantine tradition as hē kephalē or hē oura
see Mallmann, 1962, p 81; Markel, 1995, pp 55–64; Pingree,
tou drakontos See Schlüter, 1982, p 138
the dragon and astrology
137
“good” luminaries, the Sun and the Moon, were
the head and tail of the dragon 55 According to
removed from the category of the seven plan-
Manichaean cosmogony the two dragons were
ets whose intrusion brought injustice into the
hung up and fettered in the lowest heaven and
world 46 Consequently the Sun and the Moon
two angels, male and female, were placed there
were substituted by two “demonic” opponents,
to cause them to revolve continuously 56
the head and tail of the dragon (Pahl gōchihr
In the history of ancient Indian astronomy
which stems from the Avestan gao chithra, “hold-
throughout the pre-Siddhāntic period, only
ing the seed of cattle,” formerly the stock epithet
Rāhu (the grahaṇa, “seizer”) was held “respon-
of the Moon47) 48 According to the Bundahishn,
sible” for causing eclipses by devouring the Sun
Gōchihr is portrayed as “similar to a snake with
and Moon Ketu (the tail of the dragon), under-
the head in Gemini (dō-pahikar) and the tail in
stood as a planet57 that generates comets with its
Centaurus (nēmasp), so that at all times there
fiery tail, is first mentioned in the Atharvaveda
are six constellations between its head and tail ”49
(19 9 8-10) 58 Both Rāhu and Ketu appear in the
In contradistinction to the original meaning
great epic Mahābhārata (1 5 15–7), in which
of gao chithra, the light and fecundity attribute
the demon Rāhu allied himself with the celestial
of the Moon, the dragon’s head (gōchihr sar) and
gods in the struggle against the world serpent,
tail (gōchihr dumb) came to represent the demon
Ananta After the victorious event, he assumed
of eclipses that intercepts the light of the lumi-
a disguise and thus succeeded in drinking
naries, the personified dark principle and direct
from the most beneficial of substances, the
antagonist of the luminaries 50 This led to the con-
amṛta (lit “non-dying”; Av haoma, Vedic Skt
cept of a polarity of good and evil throughout
sóma)59 drink containing the miraculous herb of
the cosmos, the eclipse demon being referred to
immortality But the Sun and the Moon having
as Dark Sun and Dark Moon, “dark” meaning
detected his deception denounced him to the
“obscured,” and “eclipsed ”51 Thus, according to
gods, whereupon Vishnu swiftly threw his discus
the Bundahishn, the serpent-like (mār homānāg)
(sudarśanacakra) and severed Rāhu’s head How-
Gōchihr and Mūsh Parīg, with tail (dumbōmand)
ever, the drink had already produced its effect so
and wings (parrwar), are said to be the evil oppo-
that his head and tail both survive, immortalised,
nents of the stel ar constel ations and are therefore
as invisible planets and intransigent enemies of
bound to the Sun’s path to restrain their capac-
the luminaries As a consequence, the Sun and
ity to cause harm 52 The expulsion of evil from
the Moon are periodically – in symbolic terms –
the sky is manifested by the plunging to earth of
“swallowed” or “disappear in” the vengeful mon-
Gōchihr,53 who sets the earth on fire and whose
ster that thus causes solar and lunar eclipses 60
permanent body will only be destroyed by resur-
In the later, “scientific” phase, when Indian
rection 54 The eclipse dragon also played a part in
notions were transmitted to Western Asia and
Manichaeism as Anabibazon and Katabibazon,
the wider Iranian world, the two parts of the
46 Khareghat, 1914, p 129; Brunner, “Astronomy and
53 1–5, and Shkand-gumānīg wizār 4 46, cited after Brunner,
Astrology in the Sasanian Period, s v Astrology and Astron-
“Astronomy and Astrology in the Sasanian Period,” EIr Cf
omy in Iran,” EIr, pp 862–8
Zaehner, 1955, repr 1972, p 164, n E MacKenzie, 1964,
47 Zaehner, 1955, repr 1972, p 164, n E; MacKenzie,
pp 513, 516; Hartner, 1938, p 151
53
1964, p 515, n 26
Bundahishn 34 17, p 225 1–3, cited after Brunner,
48 Bundahishn ch 5, A 5, pp 52 12–53 1, cited after
“Astronomy and Astrology in the Sasanian Period,” EIr
54
Brunner, “Astronomy and Astrology in the Sasanian Period,”
Bundahishn 30 31, cited after Khareghat, 1914, p 128
55
EIr, pp 862–8 Cf Hartner, “Al-Djawzahar,” EI² II,
For instance in the Coptic Kephalaia (ch 69), cited
501b
after Beck, 2004, pp 177–8
49
56
Bundahishn ch 5 A 5 Skjærvø, “Aždahā I,” EIr Cf
Boyce, 1975, p 60 text y 1 with note; Skjærvø, “Aždahā
Zaehner, 1955, repr 1972, p 164, n E Also MacKenzie,
I,” EIr
57
1964, pp 515, 525
For the evolution of the meanings of “ketu,” see
50 Hartner, 1938, p 153 Cf Duchèsne-Guillemin, 1990,
Hartner, 1938, pp 152–3
58
pp 17–9
Scherer, 1953, pp 101–3, for further names of Rāhu
51 Bundahishn (ch 5 4, p 49 13–5) and the late ninth-
and Ketu, see esp pp 102–5 Cf Markel, 1995, pp 56, 65;
century catechism Shkand-gumānīg wizār (“Doubt Dispel-
Santoro, 2006, p 547
59
ling Exposition”) 4 46, cited after Brunner, “Astronomy and
For a brief resumé on the discussion of the etymology
Astrology in the Sasanian Period,” EIr
of the term amṛta, see Long, 1976, pp 181–2, n 22 See also
52 “[The sun’s opponent, the “tailed Mūsh Parīg”] is tied
Janda, 2010, pp 29, 55
60
to the sun’s chariot but occasionally becomes loose and
Hartner, 1938, p 131, and idem, “Al-Djawzahar,” EI²
does great harm”; Bundahishn ch 5 4 5 A 6–7, pp 50 6–7,
II, 501b
138