Some studies have demonstrated that supplementation with evening primrose oil or black currant oil can
significantly reduce symptoms and signs of rheumatoid arthritis in double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized
trials.
Other studies have failed to show improvement and researchers at ribute this failure to the ability of GLA to raise
tissue levels of arachidonic acid, while reducing cell membrane concentrations of omega-3 fat y acids. In these
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Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
cases fish, fish oil or flaxseed oil may be more beneficial. The dosage of GLA used in the successful studies
reported here used an oil yielding 2.8gm per day of GLA.18,19,20
3. Skin Inflammatory Conditions (Eczema, Psoriasis)
Supplementation with oils that yield GLA have demonstrated improvement in patients suffering from eczema
(atopic dermatitis) and psoriasis (GLA content of 274 mg, twice a day). - Studies using increased fish consumption
or fish oil supplementation have also shown benefit in patients with psoriasis.21-24
Dosage Ranges
For most conditions mentioned in this review supplementation of 270-540 mg GLA per day is typically used. This
implies that 3,000-6,000 mg of evening primrose oil would be required to yield this amount of pure GLA, as evening
primrose oil is 9 percent GLA content.
Side Effects and Toxicity
GLA is very non-toxic. Evening primrose oil has been reported to exacerbate symptoms of temporal lobe epilepsy,
which can sometimes be mistaken for schizophrenia.25,26
Drug-Nutrient Interactions
GLA-containing oils may increase seizure activity in patients taking anti-seizure medications.27
N.B. Concurrent supplementation of GLA, EPA, or LNA with a B-50 complex, vitamin E, vitamin C, zinc and
magnesium helps to encourage the synthesis of anti-inflammatory prostaglandins (series 1 and 3). These vitamins
and minerals act as cofactors to help catalyze enzymatic conversion of essential fatty acids to the more desirable
prostaglandins of the one and three series.1
1. Murray M. Encyclopedia of Nutritional Supplements. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing; 1996. p. 252-68.
2. Joe LA, Hart LL. Evening primrose oil in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Pharmacother 1993;27:1475-7[review].
3. Horrobin DF. The importance of gamma-linolenic acid and prostaglandin E1 in human nutrition and medicine. J Holistic Med
1981;3:118-39.
4. Horrobin DF, Manku M, Brush M, et al. Abnormalities in plasma essential fatty acid levels in women with pre-menstrual syndrome
Comment [c10]: Could not find the other authors
and with non-malignant breast disease. J Nutr Med 1991;2:259-64.
5. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, et al. Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma-linolenic acid. Diabetes Care 1993;16:8-
Comment [c11]: Could not find the other authors
15[reviews].
6. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in diseases of connective tissue with special reference to scleroderma and to Sjogren’s
syndrome. Med Hypoth 1984;14:233-47.
7. Horrobin DF, Campbell A. Sjogren’s syndrome and the sicca syndrome: the role of prostaglandin E1 deficiency. Treatment with
essential fatty acids and vitamin C. Med Hypoth 1980;6:225-32.
8. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ. Essential fatty acids, tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. In: Horrobin DF, editor. Omega-6 Essential
Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine. New York, NY: Alan R Liss; 1990. p. 333–43.
9. Manku MS, Horrobin, DF, Morse NL, et al. Essential fatty acids in the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. Br J
Comment [c12]: Could not find the other authors
Derm 1984;110:643.
10. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acids in clinical dermatology. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20:1045-53.
11. Mansel RE, Pye JK, Hughes LE. Effects of essential fatty acids on cyclical mastalgia and noncyclical breast disorders. In: Omega-
6 Essential Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine. Horrobin DF, editor. New York, NY: Alan R Liss, 1990. p.
557-66.
12. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, Walker J, Jamal GA, Weir AI, et al. Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma-linolenic acid.
Diabetes Care 1993;16:8-15.
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Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
Accessory Nutrients and Essential Oils
13. Horribin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism in diseases of connective tissue with special reference to scleroderma and to Sjogren’s
syndrome. Med Hypoth 1984;14:233-47.
14. Vaddadi KS, Gilleard CJ. Essential fatty acids, tardive dyskinesia, and schizophrenia. In: Horrobin DF, editor. Omega-6 Essential
Fatty Acids: Pathophysiology and Roles in Clinical Medicine. New York, NY: Alan R Liss; 1990. p. 333-43.
15. Schalin-Karrila M, Mattila L, Jansen CT, Uotila P. Evening primrose oil in the treatment of atopic eczema: effect on clinical status,
plasma phospholipid fatty acids and circulating blood prostaglandins. Brit J Dermatol 1987;117:11-9.
16. Janti J. Evening primrose oil in rheumatoid arthritis: changes in serum lipids and fatty acids. Annals Rheumatol Dis 1989;48:124-7.
17. Keen H, Payan J, Allawi J, Walker J, Jamal GA, Weir AI, et al. Treatment of diabetic neuropathy with gamma-linolenic acid. The
Gamma-Linolenic Acid Multicenter Trial Group. Diabetic Care 1993;16:8-15.
18. Zurier RB, Rossetti RG, Jacobson EW, et al. Gamma-linolenic acid treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, placebo-
Comment [c13]: Could not find the other authors
controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 1996;11:1808-17.
19. Leventhal LJ, Boyce EG, Zurier Rb. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with black currant seed oil. Br J Rheumatol 1994;9:847-52.
20. Jantti J, Nikkari T, Solakivi T, Vapaatalo H, et al. Evening primrose oil in rheumatoid arthritis. Changes in serum lipids and fatty
Comment [c14]: Could not find the other authors
acids. Annals Rheum Dis 1989;48:124-7.
21. Andreassi M, Forleo P, Di Lorio Z, Masci S, Abate G, Amerio P. Efficacy of gamma-linolenic acid in the treatment of patients with
atopic dermatitis. J Int Med Res 1997;5:266-74.
22. Borrek S, Hildebrandt A, Forster J. Gamma-linolenic acid-rich borage seed oil capsules in children with atopic dermatitis. A placebo-
controlled double-blind study. Klin Padiatr 1997;3:100-4.
23. Hederos C, Berg, A. Epogam evening primrose oil treatment on atopic dermatitis and asthma. Arch Dis Child 1996;6:494-7.
24. Collier PM, Ursell A, Zaremba K, Payne CM, Staughton RC, Sanders T. Effect of regular consumption of oily fish compared with
white fish on chronic plaque psoriasis. Ew J Clin Nutr 1993;4:251-4.
25. Vaddadl KS. The use of gamma-linolenic acid and linolenic acid to differentiate between temporal lobe epilepsy and schizophrenia.
Prostaglandins Med 1981;6:375-9.
26. Holman CP, Bell AFJ. A trial of evening primrose oil in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia. J Orthomol Psychiatr 1983;12:302-4.
27. Miller LG. Selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herb interactions. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:2200-