Since the mid 1970s, Boron has been used to treat osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile arthritis, using
daily doses of 6-9 mg. Preliminary studies demonstrate very good results in placebo–controlled trials. The
mechanism of action remains unknown for this application.5,6
Dosage Ranges
1. Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: 3 mg per day.2
2. Arthritis: 6-9 mg per day.5,6
Side Effects and Toxicity
At usual supplemental levels of intake, Boron has shown no toxicity in human studies. Some women experienced
increased hot flashes and night sweats (postmenopausal) or a worsening of their symptoms with 2.5 mg of Boron
supplementation. These women may have to discontinue use.7
As well, the increase in estrogen levels may be of concern in regards to increasing risk of breast and other
reproductive cancers. Thus, many authorities suggest limiting Boron supplementation in postmenopausal women to a
maximum of 1 mg per day.8
Drug-Nutrient Interaction
There are no well-known drug nutrient interactions for Boron.9
www.meschinohealth.com
6
Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Minerals
Pregnancy and Lactation
During pregnancy and lactation, the only supplements that are considered safe include standard prenatal
vitamin and mineral supplements. All other supplements or dose alterations may pose a threat to the
developing fetus and there is generally insuf icient evidence at this time to determine an absolute level of
safety for most dietary supplements other than a prenatal supplement. Any supplementation practices
beyond a prenatal supplement should involve the cooperation of the at ending physician (e.g., magnesium
and the treatment of preeclampsia.)
References: Pregnancy and Lactation
1. Encyclopedia of Nutritional Supplements. Murray M. Prima Publishing 1998.
2. Reavley NM. The New Encyclopedia of Vitamins, Minerals, Supplements, and Herbs. Evans and
Company Inc. 1998.
3. The Healing Power of Herbs (2nd edition). Murray M. Prima Publishing 1995.
4. Boon H and Smith M. Health Care Professional Training Program in Complementary Medicine.
Institute of Applied Complementary Medicine Inc. 1997.
1. Hendler S. The Doctors’s Vitamin and Mineral Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster; 1990. p. 114-6.
2. Neilson FH, Hunt CD, Mullen LM, Hunt JR. Effect of dietary Boron on mineral, estrogen, and testosterone metabolism in
postmenopausal women. FASEB J 1987:1;394-7.
3. Neilson FH. Boron: an overlooked element of potential nutritional importance. Nutrition Today. 1988:23;4-7.
4. Nielson FH, Gallagher SK, Johnson LK, Nielson EJ. Boron enhances and mimics some of the effects of estrogen therapy in
postmenopausal women. J Trace Elem Exp Med 1992; 5:237-46.
5. Travers RL, Rennie GC, Newnham RE. Boron and arthritis: the results of a double-blind pilot study. J Nutr Med 1990;1:127-32.
6. Newnham RE. Arthritis or skeletal fluorosis and Boron. Int Clin Nutr Rev 1991;11:68-70.
7. Nielsen FH, Penland JG. Boron supplementation of peri-menopausal women affects boron metabolism and indices associated with
macromineral metabolism, hormonal status and immune function. J Trace Elements Exp Med 1999; 12:251-61.
8. Healthnotes 1998-2002. Available from: URL: http://www.healthnotes.com
9. Murray M. Encyclopedia of Nutritional Supplements. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing; 1996. p. 193.
www.meschinohealth.com
7
Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Minerals
Calcium
General Features
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It makes up approximately 2 percent of the body weight with 99
percent of it incorporated into the hard tissue, bones, and teeth. The other one percent is present in the blood and
extracellular fluids and within cells of soft tissue where it regulates many important metabolic functions. In addition to
building and maintaining bones and teeth, Calcium is necessary for muscle contraction, blood clot ing (stimulates the
release of thromboplastin from platelets, facilitates conversion of prothrombin to thrombin), cell membrane transport
functions, release of neurotransmitters, synthesis and secretion of protein, hormones and intracellular enzymes, nerve
transmission and regulation of heart beat. The proper balance of Calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium ions
maintains muscle tone and controls irritability and the muscle membrane’s electrical potential.
Calcium is present in bones in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals, composed of Calcium phosphate, Calcium
carbonate, magnesium, zinc, sodium and fluoride. These salt crystals are arranged around a framework of softer
protein material (organic matrix). The hydroxyapatite crystal provides strength and rigidity to the softer protein matrix
of bone. The same crystals are present in the enamel and dentin of teeth; however, the Calcium from teeth is
generally not reabsorbed into the bloodstream in times of need or in conjunction with low circulation levels of estrogen,
progesterone, or testosterone. Bone Calcium can be reabsorbed into the blood stream, weakening the skeleton and
increasing susceptibility to osteoporotic fractures (often seen in the spine and neck of the femur).
Blood levels of Calcium are maintained within a fixed range by various feedback mechanisms. A significant increase
in serum Calcium can cause cardiac or respiratory failure and a hypocalcemic state leads to tetany (involuntary muscle
spasm that can cause asphyxia and death from spasm of airway musculature).
Absorption and Metabolism
Calcium is absorbed primarily via active transport in the duodenum (some via passive diffusion). Active transport
requires the assistance of vitamin D. The body normally absorbs 30-40 percent of ingested Calcium, but it can be as
low as 10 percent from inorganic sources such as vegetables or grains with a high content of phytic or oxalic acid.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases Calcium absorption by increasing the conversion of vitamin D to its active form.
In general, factors that increase Calcium absorption include: serum levels of vitamin D, PTH, lactose, intestinal acidity,
and possibly fat intake. Factors that hinder Calcium absorption include: oxalic acid (chocolate, spinach, beet tops,
collard greens, etc.) but this is not of great concern as dietary Calcium is usually far greater than dietary oxalate. The
same is true for phytic acid found in whole grains (e.g., wheat bran and whole wheat). Low serum levels of vitamin D
and/or PTH decrease Calcium absorption.
Following absorption, Calcium enters the bloodstream and is transported to body tissue. The major site of deposition
is bone.1 Unabsorbed Calcium (approximately 60-70 percent of intake levels) is excreted in fecal mat er, but may
provide a protective role in regards to colon cancer prevention by binding to bile acids and other sterols and blocking
their conversion to cancer-causing secondary sterols (lithocholic acid, deoxycholic acid).2,3
www.meschinohealth.com
8
Meschino Health Comprehensive Guide to Minerals
Daily Calcium Requirement (NIH Recommendations)
Age Group and Gender
Calcium
(mg)
Under 6 months
400
6–12 months
600
1–10 years
800
11-24 years Male and Female
1200-1500
25–50 years Male and Female
1000
Postmenopausal Women not taking estrogen replacement (ERT)
1500
Postmenopausal Women taking ERT
1000
65+ years Postmenopausal Women taking or not taking ERT
1500
50-64 years Men
1000
65+ years Men
15004
Calcium Preparations and Bioavailability
The bioavailability of various forms of Calcium supplements has been evaluated using radio-isotope and other studies.
The following is a summary of the key findings to date:
Type
Absorptive Fraction of Calcium in Normal
Subjects
Milk
Approximately 33% on empty stomach
Calcium Carbonate
Approximately 31% on empty stomach
Calcium Citrate
Approximately 40% on empty stomach
Calcium Gluconate
Approximately 26.6% on empty stomach
Calcium Lactate
Approximately 34.5 % on empty stomach
Tricalcium Phosphate
Approximately 25.2% on empty stomach
Calcium Citrate-malate
Approximately 34.9% on empty stomach
Calcium Chloride
Approximately 36.4% on empty stomach
Average Diet
Approximately 32% on empty stomach3
It is best to take Calcium supplements with food to capitalize upon the other potential benefits regarding bone/health
and blood pressure regulation, as well as the improved bioavailability of Calcium that occurs with meals (e.g. Calcium
carbonate absorption is enhanced by approximately 10 percent when ingested with meals).3
Supplementation Studies and Clinical Applications