AFRICAN MIGRATIONS
A 210,00 year old partial and likely modern human cranium found in southern Greece.
1. Katerina Harvati et al., “Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia” Nature Vol 571 (July 2019): 500.
Neanderthals evolved in Europe 400,000 years ago and remained until 40,000 years ago.
2. David Reich, Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (Vintage Books, 2019): 6.
Evidence of Neanderthals and Moderns in the Levant 120,000 years ago.
3. Rainer Grun et al., “U-series and ESR analyses of bones and teeth relating to the human burials from Skhul” Journal of Human Evolution 49 (2005): 316-317, 332.
Evidence of Neanderthals beginning to disappear in the Levant 55,000 years ago.
4. Osbjorn Pearson et al., “A Partial Neandertal Foot From the Late Middle Paleolithic of Amud Cave, Israel” PaleoAnthropology Society (2020): 98, 113, 116.
Evidence of Moderns in the Levant 55,000 years ago.
5. Israel Hershkovitz et al., “Levantine cranium from Manot Cave (Israel) foreshadows the first European modern humans” Nature (2015): 1.
DNA evidence shows that the exit from Africa was through Egypt and the Sinai.
6. Luca Pagani et al., “Tracing the Route of Modern Humans out of Africa by Using 225 Human Genome Sequences from Ethiopians and Egyptians” American Journal of Human Genetics Vol 96 Issue 6 (June 2015): Conclusion.
The Migrants and Neanderthals interbred in the Near East.
7. David Reich, Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (Vintage Books, 2019): 40.
Neanderthals hunted in packs.
8. Lorraine Boissoneault, “Neanderthals Hunted in Groups, One More Strike Against the Dumb Brute Myth” Smithsonian Magazine (June 2018).
New discoveries and research increasingly reveals that Neanderthals were basically human.
9. Susan Peeters et al., “Neanderthals as familiar strangers and the human spark: How the ‘golden years’ of Neanderthal research reopen the question of human uniqueness” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences (July 2020): Abstract.
Neanderthals were a danger to big game and to themselves.
10. Nicholas R. Longrich, “Did Neanderthals go to war with our ancestors?” BBC Future (November 2020).
Neanderthal javelins are over 300,000 years old.
11. “Schöningen spears” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears (Accessed 11/09/2021).
Only a small wave of migrants departed Africa 55,000 years ago, likely fewer than 2,500.
12. Brenna M. Henn et al., “The Great Human Expansion” PNAS (October 2012): Abstract.
55,000 YEARS AGO
All non-Africans have descended from one small migration.
1. Hua Liu et al., “A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History” PubMed Central (2006): Abstract, Discussion.
Interbreeding with the Denisovans was not a unique event isolated to a particular time or group of Migrants. Evidence of this is found in the DNA of modern South Asians, East Asians, Philippine Mamanwas, Indigeounous Australians and Indigeounous New Guineans.
2. James F. O’Connell et al., “When did Homo sapiens first reach Southeast Asia and Sahul?” PNAS (August 2018): Genetics.
Helicobacter pylori.
3. Bodo Linz et al., “An African origin for the intimate association between humans and Helicobacter pylori” PubMed Central (2007): Abstract.
Neanderthals and the Migrants were two predators in the same ecological niche.
4. Nicholas R. Longrich, “Did Neanderthals go to war with our ancestors?” BBC Future (November 2020).
The European Neanderthal disappeared roughly 4,000 years after the Migrants arrived 45,000 years ago.
5. Tom Higham et al., “The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance” Nature (August 2014).
Neanderthals successfully hunted giant straight-tusked elephants, woolly rhinoceroses, mammoths and each other.
6. Lorraine Boissoneault, “Neanderthals Hunted in Groups, One More Strike Against the Dumb Brute Myth” Smithsonian Magazine (June 2018).
7. Nicholas R. Longrich, “Did Neanderthals go to war with our ancestors?” BBC Future (November 2020).
THE INVENTION
A +60,000 year old bone arrowhead from Sibudu Cave, South Africa.
1. Jocelyn Rice, “Archaeologists Find the World’s Oldest Arrowheads” Discover (December 2008).
Analysis of the Sibudu Cave bone arrowhead.
2. Lucinda Backwell et al., “The antiquity of bow-and-arrow technology: evidence from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu Cave” Cambridge University Press (April 2018).
1926 San hunting kit.
3. Marguerite Oosthuizen, “The description of an unusual hunting kit considered to be of Southern Bushman origin” Killie Campbell Africana Library (October 1977): 75, 84.
Sibudu Cave 64,000 year old stone arrowheads.
4. Marlize Lombard, “Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 ka: further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa” Journal of Archaeological Science (August 2011): Abstract.
Pinnacle Cave 71,000 year old arrowheads.
5. Erin Wayman, “Early Bow and Arrows Offer Insight Into Origins of Human Intellect” Smithsonian Magazine (November 2012).
Sibudu Cave 77,000 year old stone arrowheads.
6. Veerle Rots et al., “Pressure flaking to serrate bifacial points for the hunt during the MIS5 at Sibudu Cave (South Africa)” PLOS (April 2017): Abstract, Hunting with points mounted on shafts.
Small bladed arrowheads (Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, England).
7. J. Desmond Clark, “Interpretations of Prehistoric Technology from Ancient Egyptian and other Sources. Part II : Prehistoric arrow forms in Africa as shown by surviving examples of the traditional arrows of the San Bushmen” Paléorient (1975): 138.
Ancient bow makers were highly skilled.
8. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 13.
There are approximately 750 native tree species in North America.
9. “Trees of North America” Trees Live Here, http://northamericantrees.com/index.html (Accessed 11/14/21).
Native Americans made use of some eight tree species to make their war/hunting bows.
10. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 14-22.
The properties of the wood dictate the shape of the bow.
11. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 14.
Bow stave preparation.
12. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 22-26.
Medieval English longbow staves were cured for 4 years.
13. Eric Faust et al., “HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE BOW: LONGBOW VS. CROSSBOW” WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE (May 2014): 20.
Cardinal rule of bow making.
14. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 28.
Hadza bow making.
15. Frank M. Marlowe, The Hadza Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania (University of California Press, 2010): 85.
Bow strings.
16. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 82-86.
Arrow shafts.
17. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 89, 93-104.
Arrow fletching and arrowheads.
18. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 89, 105, 111-134.
Shaft sizers.
19. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 98.
Nez Perce bow.
20. Jack McNeel, ”Death of Elmer Crow Is a Cultural Loss for the Nez Perce” Indian-Country Today (Sep 2018).
SUCCESS
Population size affects innovation growth and its retention.
1. Maxime Derex et al., “Experimental evidence for the influence of group size on cultural complexity” Nature (November 2013): 389.
2. Joseph Henrich, “Demography and cultural evolution: how adaptive cultural processes can produce maladaptive losses: the Tasmanian case” American Antiquity (2004): Conclusion.
3. MARIUS KEMPE et al., “An experimental demonstration of the effect of group size on cultural accumulation” Durham Research Online (August 2014): Abstract, Introduction.
U.S. Patent Office.
4. “U.S. Patent Statistics Chart Calendar Years 1963 - 2020” U.S. PATENT AND TRADEMARK OFFICE Patent Technology Monitoring Team (PTMT) www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/us_stat.htm (Accessed 11/15/21).
Isaac Newton quote.
5. “Sir Isaac Newton” BBC, https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/movingwords/shortlist/newton. shtml (Accessed 11/15/21).
All people living today share a 320,000 year old common ancestor.
6. David Reich, Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (Vintage Books, 2019): 18.
Population expansion circa 80,000-60,000 years ago.
7. Paul Mellars, “Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model” PNAS (June 2006): Abstract, Archaeological Evidence.
8. Carla Aimé et al., “Human genetic data reveal contrasting demographic patterns between sedentary and nomadic populations that predate the emergence of farming” Molecular Biology and Evolution (December 2013): Inferred Expansion Signals Predate the Emergence of Farming.
Oldest known evidence of the bow-and-arrow.
9. Veerle Rots et al., “Pressure flaking to serrate bifacial points for the hunt during the MIS5 at Sibudu Cave (South Africa)” (April 2017): Abstract.
New hunting techniques likely increased food supply.
10. Paul Mellars, “Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model” PNAS (June 2006): Population Expansion.
HADZA
Modern hunter-gatherers in East Africa.
1. National Geographic Society, “Hadza” National Geographic Society (August 2019).
The Hadza are perhaps the direct descendants of all non-Africans.
2. Johannes Krause et.al, “First large-scale ancient genomes study from sub-Saharan African skeletons lifts veil on prehistoric populations”
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (September 2017): Hadza may be direct descendants of the group of humans that migrated out of Africa.
Hadza oral traditions.
3. R. Layton (Editor), Who Needs the Past? (Routledge, 1994): 53.
Hadza bows are extremely powerful.
4. Frank M. Marlowe, The Hadza Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania (University of California Press, 2010): 84-85.
Hadza boys become expert hunters at an early age.
5. Frank M. Marlowe, The Hadza Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania (University of California Press, 2010): 157.
EARLY MIGRATION OF THE BOW
Iraq (50,000 BP)
50,000 year old Iraqi Neanderthal.
1. Steven E. Churchill et al., “Shanidar 3 Neandertal rib puncture wound and paleolithic weaponry“ Journal of Human Evolution (August 2009): 165.
2. Libby W. Cowgill et al., “Shanidar 10: A Middle Paleolithic immature distal lower limb from Shanidar Cave, Iraqi Kurdistan” Journal of Human Evolution (2007): 214.
Evidence of a violent death.
3. Steven E. Churchill et al., “Shanidar 3 Neandertal rib puncture wound and paleolithic weaponry“ Journal of Human Evolution (August 2009): 163-167, 175.
Image of wound.
4. Steven E. Churchill et al., “Shanidar 3 Neandertal rib puncture wound and paleolithic weaponry“ Journal of Human Evolution (August 2009): 167.
San arrow shafts.
5. J. Desmond Clark, “Interpretations of Prehistoric Technology from Ancient Egyptian and other Sources. Part II : Prehistoric arrow forms in Africa as shown by surviving examples of the traditional arrows of the San Bushmen” Paléorient (1975): 130.
Modern wood arrow shafts (5/16, 11/32, and 23/64 inch diameters).
6. Mark Vogel, “Bow Hunting With Wood Arrows“ Ross City Archery (1980): How Spine Weight Affects Arrow Flight.
Dart and spear size.
7. Pierre Cattelain, “Hunting during the Upper Paleolithic: Bow,Spearthrower, or Both?” Plenum Press (January 1997): 215-217.
8. William R. Short, “Viking Spears” Hurstwic (2021).
45,000 year old damaged Italian blades (backed pieces).
9. Adriana Moroni et al., “Grotta del Cavallo (Apulia – Southern Italy). The Uluzzian in the mirror” Journal of Anthropological Sciences (2018): 142.
Arrowhead alignment.
10. Richard Dodge, Thirty-three Years Among Our Wild Indians (Archer House, 1959): 418-419.
Sri Lanka (48,000 BP)
Evidence of bone arrowheads.
1. Michelle Langley et al., “Bows and arrows and complex symbolic displays 48,000 years ago in the South Asian tropics” SCIENCE ADVANCES (June 2020): Abstract, Osseous hunting technologies & Discussion.
Prime age monkeys and squirrels were hunted.
2. Michelle Langley et al., “Bows and arrows and complex symbolic displays 48,000 years ago in the South Asian tropics” SCIENCE ADVANCES (June 2020): Introduction.
Arrow vs. dart velocities. (max. example: 198 f/s vs. 96 f/s ).
3. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 107.
4. Geoff M. Smith et al., "When Lithics Hit Bones: Evaluating the Potential of a Multifaceted Experimental Protocol to Illuminate Middle Palaeolithic Weapon Technology” Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology (2020):Velocity and Kinetic Energy.
Italy (45,000 BP)
First known moderns in Southern Italy arrived with an African toolkit.
1. Adriana Moroni et al., “Grotta del Cavallo (Apulia – Southern Italy). The Uluzzian in the mirror” Journal of Anthropological Sciences (2018): 125, 150, 152-153.
The Italians and the Afrcians made use of the same type of arrowhead.
2. Marlize Lombard, “Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 ka: Further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa” Journal of Archaeological Science (August 2011): Abstract, Results.
3. Katsuhiro Sano et al., “The earliest evidence for mechanically delivered projectile weapons in Europe” Nature Ecology & Evolution (2019): lines 17-23, 42-47, 92-99.
Evidence is lacking as to how the first Migrants got to Southern Italy.
4. Adriana Moroni et al., “Grotta del Cavallo (Apulia – Southern Italy). The Uluzzian in the mirror” Journal of Anthropological Sciences (2018): 153.
Voyage to Australia.
5. Michael I. Bird et al., “Early Human Settlement of Sahul was not an accident” Scientific Reports (June 2019): Abstract, Introduction & Discussion.
Japan (38,000 BP)
The first migrants to Japan possessed the bow.
1. Katsuhiro Sano, “Evidence for the use of the bow-and-arrow technology by the first modern humans in the Japanese islands” Journal of Anthropological Sciences: Reports (December 2016): Abstract, Results, Discussion & Conclusion.
Timor Island (35,000 BP)
Ancient bone arrowhead near Australia.
1. Sue O'Connor et al., “Are osseous artefacts a window to perishable material culture? Implications of an unusually complex bone tool from the Late Pleistocene of East Timor” Journal of Human Evolution (January 2014): Abstract, Morphological features of the artefact, Consideration of the hafting mechanism.
Arrowhead insertion.
2. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 131-132
Possible hafting methods.
3. Sue O'Connor et al., “Are osseous artefacts a window to perishable material culture? Implications of an unusually complex bone tool from the Late Pleistocene of East Timor” Journal of Human Evolution (January 2014): Figure 5.
Western Russia (29,000 BP)
Ancient Russian arrowheads.
1. Pavel Yurievich Pavlov, “THE PALEOLITHIC OF NORTHEASTERN EUROPE” Archaeology Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia (March 2008): The Initial and the Early Upper Paleolithic.
2. Pavel Yurievich Pavlov,
“Стоянка Гарчи I - памятник костенковско-стрелецкой культуры на
Верхней Каме (Северный Урал)” Federal Research Center, Komi Science Center Urals Division RAS Institute of Language, Literature and History Department of Archaeology (January 2009): Fig. 6. Garchi I site. Stone assemblage.
North American arrowheads similar to the Russian arrowheads.
3. Robert M. Overstreet, Identification and Price Guide To Indian Arrowheads (Gemstone Publishing, 2005): Alaska (p.1142, 11,000 - 11,300 years old), Bering Sea Region (p.1134, 1000 - 2500 BP), Oregon (p.955, 3500 - 7000 BP), Pennsylvania (p.136, 600 -1300 BP), Tennessee (p.498, 1000 - 6000 BP), Arizona (p.882, 2300-3500 BP), Northern Mexico (p. 881, 1000 - 6000 BP), Nebraska (p.895,4000 - 6000 BP).
Ancient Texas projectile.
4. Michael R. Waters et al., “Pre-Clovis projectile points at the Debra L. Friedkin site, Texas—Implications for the Late Pleistocene peopling of the Americas”Science Advances (Oct 2018): Buttermilk Creek Complex horizon & Figure 5 (A).
Southern France (54,000 BP)
The Neanderthals made a successful comeback.
1. Ludovic Slimak et al., “Modern human incursion into Neanderthal territories 54,000 years ago at Mandrin, France" Science Advances (Feb 2022): Discussion.
The Migrants returned.
2. Ludovic Slimak et al., “Modern human incursion into Neanderthal territories 54,000 years ago at Mandrin, France" Science Advances (Feb 2022): Discussion.
Wolf-dog.
3. “Origin of the domestic dog” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_the_domestic_dog: Late Pleistocene wolf admixture: A Neolithic dog from Newgrange, Ireland "showed ancestry from a population of wolves that could not be found in other dogs nor wolves today. The mutation rates calibrated from both the Taimyr wolf and the Newgrange dog genomes suggest that the modern wolf and dog populations diverged from a common ancestor between 20,000 and 60,000 YBP." (Accessed 2/18/2022).
AUSTRALIA
Captain Cook’s voyage of 1768 -1771.
1. James Cook, “Captain Cook’s Journal During the First Voyage Round the World” PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK (May 2005): [Land upon Possession Island].
Traders of the Torres Strait.
2. “Kaurareg” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaurareg (Accessed 11/08/2021).
Collapse of the Australian ecosystem.
3. Terri Cook, “Ecosystem collapse in Pleistocene Australia” Earth: The Science Behind the Headlines (May 2012).
Native Australian tree species.
4. “Species List for Australian Tree Identification Images and Descriptions” AllCreativeDesigns, https://allcreativedesigns.com.au/pages/speciescommon.html (Accessed 11/08/2021).
Australian bow wood.
5. Anecdotally, as posted by bowyers on the Internet, there are 12 native Australian trees that have been made into serviceable bows by modern bowyers. Brown Mallet Eucalyptus Astringens, Desert Oak Allocasuarina decaisneana, Brigalow Acacia harpophylla, Spotted Gum Corymbia maculata, Grey ironbark Eucalyptus paniculata, Red Ironbark Eucalyptus sideroxylon, Black wattle Acacia mearnsii, Soapwood Alphitonia excelsa, Australian Pine Casuarina equisetifolia, Lancewood (aka Ironwood, Neverbreak) Backhousia myrtifolia, Hickory Wattle, Acacia implexa, Watergum Tristaniopsis laurina.
Liangulu hunters of Kenya.
6. Dennis Holman, Massacre of the Elephants (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967): 35-36.
Draw weight of the Medieval English longbow.
7. Hugh D. H. Soar et al., Secrets of the English War Bow (Westholme Publishing, 2010): 15.
Importation of bow wood by Native Americans.
8. Jim Hamm, Bows & Arrows of the Native Americans (Lyons & Burford, 1991): 14.
Possible routes taken by ancient voyagers to Australia/New Guinea.
9. Michael I. Bird et al., “Early Human Settlement of Sahul was not an accident” Scientific Reports (June 2019): Figure 1.
Earliest known ancient site on Southwest Coast of Australia.
10. Alan Cooper et al., “When did Aboriginal people first arrive in Australia?” UNSW Sydney (August 2018): Long connection to country (note Devil's Lair).
Australia’s megafauna.
11. Admin., “10 Prehistoric Giants of Australia” Kickass Facts Encyclopedia (March 2021).
Spearthrower experiment.
12. Geoff M. Smith et al., “When Lithics Hit Bones: Evaluating the Potential of a Multifaceted Experimental Protocol to Illuminate Middle Palaeolithic Weapon Technology” Springer Link (April 2020): Materials and Methods & Velocity and Kinetic Energy.
English longbow performance.
13. Hugh D. H. Soar et al., Secrets of the English War Bow (Westholme Publishing, 2010): 129-130.
Ancient Australian with a damaged right arm.
14. Steve Webb, “Who was Mungo Man?” Office of Environment and Heritage (2021).
15. Stephen Webb, Palaeopathology of Aboriginal Australians: Health and Disease across a Hunter-Gatherer Continent (Cambridge University Press, 1995): 47.
Evidence of the spearthrower predates the African Migration.
16. Matthew L. Sisk et al., “The African origin of complex projectile technology: an analysis using tip cross-sectional area and perimeter” International Journal of Evolutionary Biology (2011): Introduction, Discussion (Fig 4, Porc Epic) & Conclusions.
PEACEMAKER
Col. Richard Dodge quote.
1. Richard Dodge, Thirty-three Years Among Our Wild Indians (Archer House, 1959): 420.
Rachel Plummer quote.
2. Rachel Plummer, The Rachel Plummer Narrative (Forgotten Books, 2018, Self Published, 1839): 100.
Fire rate of muzzleloader rifle.
3. Richard Kerr, WALL OF FIRE -- THE RIFLE AND CIVIL WAR INFANTRY TACTICS (U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1990): 20-22.
The Battle of Walker’s Creek.
4. S.C. Gwynne, Empire of the Summer Moon (Scribner, 2010): 146-148.