to escape . By November, however, the turning point in the war . Brit-
Howe had captured Fort Washing- ish General John Burgoyne, moving
ton on Manhattan Island . New York south from Canada, attempted to
City would remain under British invade New York and New England
control until the end of the war .
via Lake Champlain and the Hud-
That December, Washington’s son River . He had too much heavy
forces were near collapse, as sup- equipment to negotiate the wooded
plies and promised aid failed to and marshy terrain . On August 6,
materialize . Howe again missed his at Oriskany, New York, a band of
chance to crush the Americans by Loyalists and Native Americans un-
deciding to wait until spring to re- der Burgoyne’s command ran into a
sume fighting . On Christmas Day, mobile and seasoned American force
December 25, 1776, Washington that managed to halt their advance .
crossed the Delaware River, north A few days later at Bennington, Ver-
of Trenton, New Jersey . In the early- mont, more of Burgoyne’s forces,
morning hours of December 26, his seeking much-needed supplies, were
troops surprised the British garrison pushed back by American troops .
there, taking more than 900 prison-
Moving to the west side of the
ers . A week later, on January 3, 1777, Hudson River, Burgoyne’s army ad-
Washington attacked the British at vanced on Albany . The Americans
Princeton, regaining most of the were waiting for him . Led by Bene-
territory formally occupied by the dict Arnold — who would later be-
British . The victories at Trenton and tray the Americans at West Point,
Princeton revived flagging Ameri- New York — the colonials twice re-
can spirits .
pulsed the British . Having by this
In September 1777, however, time incurred heavy losses, Bur-
Howe defeated the American army goyne fell back to Saratoga, New
at Brandywine in Pennsylvania and York, where a vastly superior Ameri-
occupied Philadelphia, forcing the can force under General Horatio
Continental Congress to flee . Wash- Gates surrounded the British troops .
ington had to endure the bitterly On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne sur-
cold winter of 1777-1778 at Valley rendered his entire army — six gen-
Forge, Pennsylvania, lacking ade- erals, 300 other officers, and 5,500
quate food, clothing, and supplies . enlisted personnel .
Farmers and merchants exchanged
their goods for British gold and silver
FRANCO-AMERICAN
rather than for dubious paper money
ALLIANCE
issued by the Continental Congress
and the states .
In France, enthusiasm for the
Valley Forge was the lowest ebb American cause was high: The
for Washington’s Continental Army, French intellectual world was it-
but elsewhere 1777 proved to be self stirring against feudalism and
62
OUTLINE OF U.S. HISTORY
privilege . However, the Crown lent soon broadened the conflict . In June
its support to the colonies for geo- 1778 British ships fired on French
political rather than ideological vessels, and the two countries went
reasons: The French government to war . In 1779 Spain, hoping to re-
had been eager for reprisal against acquire territories taken by Britain
Britain ever since France’s defeat in in the Seven Years’ War, entered the
1763 . To further the American cause, conflict on the side of France, but
Benjamin Franklin was sent to Paris not as an ally of the Americans . In
in 1776 . His wit, guile, and intellect 1780 Britain declared war on the
soon made their presence felt in the Dutch, who had continued to trade
French capital, and played a major with the Americans . The combina-
role in winning French assistance .
tion of these European powers, with
France began providing aid to the France in the lead, was a far greater
colonies in May 1776, when it sent 14 threat to Britain than the American
ships with war supplies to America . colonies standing alone .
In fact, most of the gunpowder used
by the American armies came from
THE BRITISH MOVE SOUTH
France . After Britain’s defeat at Sara-
toga, France saw an opportunity to With the French now involved,
seriously weaken its ancient enemy the British, still believing that most
and restore the balance of power that Southerners were Loyalists, stepped
had been upset by the Seven Years’ up their efforts in the Southern
War (called the French and Indian colonies . A campaign began in late
War in the American colonies) . On 1778, with the capture of Savannah,
February 6, 1778, the colonies and Georgia . Shortly thereafter, British
France signed a Treaty of Amity and troops and naval forces converged
Commerce, in which France recog- on Charleston, South Carolina, the
nized the United States and offered principal Southern port . They man-
trade concessions . They also signed aged to bottle up American forces on
a Treaty of Alliance, which stipu- the Charleston peninsula . On May
lated that if France entered the war, 12, 1780, General Benjamin Lincoln
neither country would lay down its surrendered the city and its 5,000
arms until the colonies won their in- troops, in the greatest American de-
dependence, that neither would con- feat of the war .
clude peace with Britain without the
But the reversal in fortune only
consent of the other, and that each emboldened the American rebels .
guaranteed the other’s possessions South Carolinians began roaming
in America . This was the only bi- the countryside, attacking British
lateral defense treaty signed by the supply lines . In July, American Gen-
United States or its predecessors
eral Horatio Gates, who had assem-
until 1949 .
bled a replacement force of untrained
The Franco-American alliance militiamen, rushed to Camden,
63