States officially recognized the new
peninsula . In November, China state of Israel 15 minutes after it was
entered the war, sending massive proclaimed — a decision Truman
forces across the Yalu River . U .N . made over strong resistance from
forces, largely American, retreated Marshall and the State Department .
once again in bitter fighting . Com- The result was an enduring dilemma
manded by General Matthew B . — how to maintain ties with Israel
Ridgway, they stopped the overex- while keeping good relations with
tended Chinese, and slowly fought bitterly anti-Israeli (and oil-rich)
their way back to the 38th parallel . Arab states .
MacArthur meanwhile challenged
Truman’s authority by attempting
EISENHOWER AND THE
to orchestrate public support for
COLD WAR
bombing China and assisting an
invasion of the mainland by Chi- In 1953, Dwight D . Eisenhower be-
ang Kai-shek’s forces . In April 1951, came the first Republican president
Truman relieved him of his duties in 20 years . A war hero rather than
and replaced him with Ridgway .
a career politician, he had a natu-
The Cold War stakes were high . ral, common touch that made him
Mindful of the European prior- widely popular . “I like Ike” was the
ity, the U .S . government decided campaign slogan of the time . After
against sending more troops to Ko- serving as Supreme Commander
rea and was ready to settle for the of Allied Forces in Western Europe
prewar status quo . The result was during World War II, Eisenhower
frustration among many Americans had been army chief of staff, presi-
who could not understand the need dent of Columbia University, and
for restraint . Truman’s popular- military head of NATO before seek-
ity plunged to a 24-percent approval ing the Republican presidential
rating, the lowest to that time of any nomination . Skillful at getting peo-
president since pollsters had begun ple to work together, he functioned
to measure presidential popularity . as a strong public spokesman and
Truce talks began in July 1951 . The an executive manager somewhat re-
two sides finally reached an agree- moved from detailed policy making .
ment in July 1953, during the first
Despite disagreements on detail,
term of Truman’s successor, Dwight he shared Truman’s basic view of
Eisenhower .
American foreign policy . He, too,
Cold War struggles also occurred perceived Communism as a mono-
in the Middle East . The region’s stra- lithic force struggling for world
tegic importance as a supplier of oil supremacy . In his first inaugural ad-
had provided much of the impetus dress, he declared, “Forces of good
for pushing the Soviets out of Iran in and evil are massed and armed and
1946 . But two years later, the United opposed as rarely before in history .
264
OUTLINE OF U.S. HISTORY
Freedom is pitted against slavery, tian Sinai . The president exerted
lightness against dark .”
heavy pressure on all three countries
The new president and his secre- to withdraw . Still, the nuclear threat
tary of state, John Foster Dulles, had may have been taken seriously by
argued that containment did not go Communist China, which refrained
far enough to stop Soviet expansion . not only from attacking Taiwan, but
Rather, a more aggressive policy from occupying small islands held
of liberation was necessary, to free by Nationalist Chinese just off the
those subjugated by Communism . mainland . It may also have deterred
But when a democratic rebellion Soviet occupation of Berlin, which
broke out in Hungary in 1956, the reemerged as a festering problem
United States stood back as Soviet during Eisenhower’s last two years
forces suppressed it .
in office .
Eisenhower’s basic commitment
to contain Communism remained,
THE COLD WAR AT HOME
and to that end he increased Ameri-
can reliance on a nuclear shield . The Not only did the Cold War shape United States had created the first U .S . foreign policy, it also had a pro-atomic bombs . In 1950 Truman had found effect on domestic affairs .
authorized the development of a new Americans had long feared radi-
and more powerful hydrogen bomb . cal subversion . These fears could at
Eisenhower, fearful that defense times be overdrawn, and used to jus-
spending was out of control, re- tify otherwise unacceptable politi-
versed Truman’s NSC-68 policy of a cal restrictions, but it also was true
large conventional military buildup . that individuals under Communist
Relying on what Dulles called “mas- Party discipline and many “fellow
sive retaliation,” the administration traveler” hangers-on gave their po-
signaled it would use nuclear weap- litical allegiance not to the United
ons if the nation or its vital interests States, but to the international Com-were attacked .
munist movement, or, practically
In practice, however, the nuclear speaking, to Moscow . During the
option could be used only against Red Scare of 1919-1920, the govern-
extremely critical attacks . Real ment had attempted to remove per-
Communist threats were generally ceived threats to American society .
peripheral . Eisenhower rejected the After World War II, it made strong
use of nuclear weapons in Indochi- efforts against Communism within
na, when the French were ousted by the United States . Foreign events,
Vietnamese Communist forces in espionage scandals, and politics cre-
1954 . In 1956, British and French ated an anti-Communist hysteria .
forces attacked Egypt following When Republicans were victo-
Egyptian nationalization of the Suez rious in the midterm congressio-
Canal and Israel invaded the Egyp- nal elections of 1946 and appeared
265