He spurred his courser on,
Without stop or stay, down the rocky way
That leads to Brotherstone.
25. With all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant.
26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, in this respect, to one dark and gloomy.
27. Wilt thou die for very weakness?
28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously upon the ear of memory.
29. The shout I heard was upon the arrival of this engine.
30. He will raise the price, not merely by the amount of the tax.
WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING.
If th
3 e
2 s
8. tudent has now learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to their function or use, and not
according to form, he will be able to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech. A few are discussed
below,—a summary of their treatment in various places as studied heretofore.
THAT.
Tha
3 t
2 m
9. ay be used as follows:
(1) As a demonstrative adjective.
That night was a memorable one.—Stockton.
(2) As an adjective pronoun.
That was a dreadful mistake.—Webster.
(3) As a relative pronoun.
And now it is like an angel's song,
That makes the heavens be mute.
—Coleridge.
(4) As an adverb of degree.
That far I hold that the Scriptures teach.—Beecher.
(5) As a conjunction: (a) Of purpose.
Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, that you might behold this joyous day.—Webster.
(b) Of result.
Gates of iron so massy that no man could without the help of engines open or shut them.—Johnson.
(c) Substantive conjunction.
We wish that labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst of its toil.—Webster.
WHAT.
(1) R
33 e
0 l.ative pronoun.
That is what I understand by scientific education.—Huxley.
(a) Indefinite relative.
Those shadowy recollections,
Which be they what they may,
Are yet the fountain light of all our day.
—Wordsworth.
(2) Interrogative pronoun: (a) Direct question.
What would be an English merchant's character after a few such transactions?—Thackeray.
(b) Indirect question.
I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see what might be hidden.—Webster.
(3) Indefinite pronoun: The saying, "I'll tell you what."
(4) Relative adjective.
But woe to what thing or person stood in the way.—Emerson.
(a) Indefinite relative adjective.
To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality.—Id.
(5) Interrogative adjective: (a) Direct question.
What right have you to infer that this condition was caused by the action of heat?—Agassiz.
(b) Indirect question.
At what rate these materials would be distributed,...it is impossible to determine.—Id.
(6) Exclamatory adjective.
Saint Mary! what a scene is here!—Scott.
(7) Adverb of degree.
If he has [been in America], he knows what good people are to be found there.—Thackeray.
(8) Conjunction, nearly equivalent to partly... partly, or not only...but.
What with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their pasturage; what with the vocal seller of bread
in the early morning;...these sounds are only to be heard...in Pera.—S.S. Cox.
(9) As an exclamation.
What, silent still, and silent all!—Byron.
What, Adam Woodcock at court!—Scott.
BUT.
(1) C
33 o
1 ö
. rdinate conjunction: (a) Adversative.
His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, but the result of calculation.—Emerson.
(b) Copulative, after not only.
Then arose not only tears, but piercing cries, on all sides. —Carlyle.
(2) Subordinate conjunction: (a) Result, equivalent to that ... not.
Nor is Nature so hard but she gives me this joy several times.—Emerson.
(b) Substantive, meaning otherwise ... than.
Who knows but, like the dog, it will at length be no longer traceable to its wild original—Thoreau.
(3) Preposition, meaning except.
Now there was nothing to be seen but fires in every direction.—Lamb.
(4) Relative pronoun, after a negative, stands for that ... not, or who ... not.
There is not a man in them but is impelled withal, at all moments, towards order.—Carlyle.
(5) Adverb, meaning only.
The whole twenty years had been to him but as one night.—Irving.
To lead but one measure.—Scott.
AS.
(1) S
33u
2b
. ordinate conjunction: (a) Of time.
Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain.—Irving.
(b) Of manner.
As orphans yearn on to their mothers,
He yearned to our patriot bands.
—Mrs Browning.
(c) Of degree.
His wan eyes
Gaze on the empty scene as vacantly
As ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven.
—Shelley.
(d) Of reason.
I shall see but little of it, as I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage.—Franklin.
(e) Introducing an appositive word.
Reverenced as one of the patriarchs of the village.—Irving.
Doing duty as a guard.—Hawthorne.
(2) Relative pronoun, after such, sometimes same.
And was there such a resemblance as the crowd had testified?—Hawthorne.
LIKE.
(1) A
33n
3 .adjective.
Modifier of a noun or pronoun.
The aforesaid general had been exceedingly like the majestic image.—Hawthorne.
They look, indeed, liker a lion's mane than a Christian man's locks.-SCOTT.
No Emperor, this, like him awhile ago.—Aldrich.
There is no statue like this living man.—Emerson.
That face, like summer ocean's.—Halleck.
In each case, like clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and is followed by a dative-objective.
(2) A subordinate conjunction of manner. This follows a verb or a verbal, but the verb of the
Introduces a clause, but its verb is
clause introduced by like is regularly omitted. Note the difference between these two uses. In
omitted.
Old English gelic (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly an adjective. In this
second use, like introduces a shortened clause modifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:—
Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring like a bewildered man.—Hawthorne.
Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air like Carlyle.—Higginson.
They conducted themselves much like the crew of a man-of-war. —Parkman.
[The sound] rang in his ears like the iron hoofs of the steeds of Time.—Longfellow.
Stirring it vigorously, like a cook beating eggs.—Aldrich.
If the verb is expressed, like drops out, and as or as if takes its place.
The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper as he pleases.—Cass.
Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, just as they do in Abyssinia to this
day.—Lamb.
I do with my friends as I do with my books.—Emerson.
NOTE.—Very rarely like is found with a verb following, but this is not considered good usage: for example,—A timid,
nervous child, like Martin was.—Mayhew.
Through which they put their heads, like the Gauchos do through their cloaks.—Darwin.
Like an arrow shot
From a well-experienced archer hits the mark.
—Shakespeare.
INTERJECTIONS.
Inte
3 r
3 je
4. ctions are exclamations used to express emotion, and are not parts of speech in the
Definition.
same sense as the words we have discussed; that is, entering into the structure of a
sentence.
Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc.
Humph! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no letters of our language can really spell.
Other interjections are oh! ah! alas! pshaw! hurrah! etc. But it is to be remembered that
Not all exclamatory words are
almost any word may be used as an exclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun,
interjections.
pronoun, verb, etc.: for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time [noun];" "Halt!
the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb]," "Up! for shame! [adverb]," "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]."
PART II.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM.
All d
3 i
3 s
5c
. ourse is made up of sentences: consequently the sentence is the unit with which we
What analysis is..
must begin. And in order to get a clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it is
necessary to become expert in analysis; that is, in separating them into their component parts.
A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of speech,—in determining case, subject and predicate,
clauses introduced by conjunctions, etc.
A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is necessary for two reasons,—
Value of analysis.
not only for a correct understanding of the principles of syntax, but for the study of
punctuation and other topics treated in rhetoric.
A se
3 n
36t.ence is the expression of a thought in words.
Definition.
Acc
3o
3rd
7. ing to the way in which a thought is put before a listener or reader, sentences may be
of three kinds:—(1) Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declaration or
Kinds of sentences as to form.
assertion. This is the most common one.
(2) Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question.
(3) Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request.
Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but the sentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or
imperative; hence, according to form, there are only the three kinds of sentences already named.
Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you must not die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always
treasures, always friends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!"
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS.
SIMPLE SENTENCES.
But
3 t
3h
8e
. division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the division, not according to the
Division according to number of
form in which a thought is put, but according to how many statements there are.
statements.
The one we shall consider first is the simple sentence.
A s
3im
39 p
. le sentence is one which contains a single statement, question, or command: for
Definition.
example, "The quality of mercy is not strained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou
familiar, but by no means vulgar."
Eve
3 ry
4
0 s
. entence must contain two parts,—a subject and a predicate.
T he predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says something about the
Definition: Predicate.
subject.
In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examine two specimen sentences:—1. But now all is to be
changed.
2. A rare old plant is the ivy green.
In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word what before the predicate,—What is to be changed? Answer,
all. Consequently, we say all is the subject of the sentence.
But if we try this with the second sentence, we have some trouble,—What is the ivy green? Answer, a rare old plant. But
we cannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not of a rare old plant, but about the ivy green; and the real subject is
the latter. Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry; and our definition must be the following, to
suit all cases:—Subject.
The subject is that which answers the question who or what placed before the predicate, and which at the same time
names that of which the predicate says something.
In th
3 e
4
1.interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently after the verb. Either the verb is the
The subject in interrogative and
first word of the sentence, or an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about
imperative simple sentences.
the subject. In analyzing such sentences, always reduce them to the order of a statement.
Thus,—(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?"
(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?"
(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?"
(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?"
In the imperative sentence, the subject (you, thou, or ye) is in most cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You]
behold her single in the field."
Exercise.
Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences:—
1.
The shadow of the dome of pleasure
Floated midway on the waves.
2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions.
3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this.
4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift.
5. The last of all the Bards was he.
6. Slavery they can have anywhere.
7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man.
8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!
9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the general.
10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present to the Anglo-Saxon races!
ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
All t
3h
4e
2 .elements of the simple sentence are as follows:—
(1) The subject.
(2) The predicate.
(3) The object.
(4) The complements.
(5) Modifiers.
(6) Independent elements.
The subject and predicate have been discussed.
The
3 o
4 b
3. ject may be of two kinds:—
(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers the question who or
Definitions. Direct Object.
what placed after the verb; or the direct object names that toward which the action of the
predicate is directed.
It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for the present we speak of the object of the verb, and by
object we mean the direct object.
(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as the modifier of a verb or
Indirect object.
verbal to name the person or thing for whose benefit an action is performed.
Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom saw her course at a glance;" indirect, "I give thee this to
wear at the collar."
A co
3 m
44. plement is a word added to a verb of incomplete predication to complete its meaning.
Complement:
Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two kinds,—transitive and intransitive.
The transitive verb often requires, in addition to the object, a word to define fully the action
Of a transitive verb.
that is exerted upon the object; for example, "Ye call me chief." Here the verb call has an
object me (if we leave out chief), and means summoned; but chief belongs to the verb, and me here is not the object
simply of call, but of call chief, just as if to say, "Ye honor me." This word completing a transitive verb is sometimes
called a factitive object, or second object, but it is a true complement.
The fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when the verb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in
exercise following Sec. 364.
An intransitive verb, especially the forms of be, seem, appear, taste, feel, become, etc., must
Complement of an intransitive
often have a word to complete the meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were round,
verb.
and of massive weight;" "The good man, he was now getting old, above sixty;" "Nothing
could be more copious than his talk;" "But in general he seemed deficient in laughter."
All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are examples of complements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred
maketh the heart sick;" "He was termed Thomas, or, more familiarly, Thom of the Gills;" "A plentiful fortune is reckoned
necessary, in the popular judgment, to the completion of this man of the world."
The
3 m
45. odifiers and independent elements will be discussed in detail in Secs. 351, 352, 355.
A ph
3 r
4 a
6 s
. e is a group of words, not containing a verb, but used as a single modifier.
Phrases.
As to form, phrases are of three kinds:—
(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, "Such a convulsion is the
Three kinds.
struggle of gradual suffocation, as in drowning; and, in the original Opium Confessions, I
mentioned a case of that nature."
(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words dependent on it. The following are examples: "Then retreating
into the warm house, and barring the door, she sat down to undress the two youngest children."
(3) INFINITIVE, consisting of an infinitive and the words dependent upon it; as in the sentence, "She left her home
forever in order to present herself at the Dauphin's court."
Things used as Subject.
The
3 s
4 u
7. bject of a simple sentence may be—
(1) Noun: "There seems to be no interval between greatness and meanness." Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A
cheery, 'Ay, ay, sir!' rang out in response."
(2) Pronoun: "We are fortified by every heroic anecdote."
(3) Infinitive phrase: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is to teach the science of method."
(4) Gerund: "There will be sleeping enough in the grave;" "What signifies wishing and hoping for better things?"
(5) Adjective used as noun: "The good are befriended even by weakness and defect;" "The dead are there."
(6) Adverb: "Then is the moment for the humming bird to secure the insects."
The
3 s
4 u
8. bject is often found after the verb—
(1) By simple inversion: as, "Therein has been, and ever will be, my deficiency,—the talent of starting the game;"
"Never, from their lips, was heard one syllable to justify," etc.
(2) In interrogative sentences, for which see Sec. 341.
(3) After "it introductory:" "It ought not to need to print in a reading room a caution not to read aloud."
In this sentence, it stands in the position of a grammatical subject; but the real or logical subject is to print, etc. It merely
serves to throw the subject after a verb.
There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, though disguised as a prepositional
Disguised infinitive subject.
phrase: "It is hard for honest men to separate their country from their party, or their religion
from their sect."
T he for did not belong there originally, but obscures the real subject,—the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No
wonder is a lewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common man to rust).
(4) After "there introductory," which has the same office as it in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There was a
description of the destructive operations of time;" "There are asking eyes, asserting eyes, prowling eyes."
Things used as Direct Object.
The
3
4w
9 o
. rds used as direct object are mainly the same as those used for subject, but they will be given in detail here, for
the sake of presenting examples:—(1) Noun: "Each man has his own vocation." Also expressions used as nouns: for
example, "'By God, and by Saint George!' said the King."
(2) Pronoun: "Memory greets them with the ghost of a smile."
(3) Infinitive: "We like to see everything do its office."
(4) Gerund: "She heard that sobbing of litanies, or the thundering of organs."
(5) Adjective used as a noun: "For seventy leagues through the mighty cathedral, I saw the quick and the dead."
Things used as Complement.
As c
3 o
5 m
0. plement of an intransitive verb,—
Complement: Of an intransitive
verb.
(1) Noun: "She had been an ardent patriot."
(2) Pronoun: "Who is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?" "This is she, the shepherd girl."
(3) Adjective: "Innocence is ever simple and credulous."
(4) Infinitive: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is to teach the science of method."
(5) Gerund: "Life is a pitching of this penny,—heads or tails;" "Serving others is serving us."
(6) A prepositional phrase: "His frame is on a larger scale;" "The marks were of a kind not to be mistaken."
It will be noticed that all these complements have a double office,—completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying
the subject.
As complement of a transitive verb,—
Of a transitive verb.
(1) Noun: "I will not call you cowards."
( 2 ) Adjective: "Manners make beauty superfluous and ugly;" "Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered pliant and
malleable in the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation." In this last sentence, the object is made the subject by being
passive, and the words italicized are still complements. Like all the complements in this list, they are adjuncts of the
object, and, at the same time, complements of the predicate.
(3) Infinitive, or infinitive phrase: "That cry which made me look a thousand ways;" "I hear the echoes throng."
(4) Participle, or participial phrase: "I can imagine him pushing firmly on, trusting the hearts of his countrymen."
(5) Prepositional phrase: "My antagonist would render my poniard and my speed of no use to me."
Modifiers.
I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement.
Sinc
3 e
5
1. the subject and object are either nouns or some equivalent of a noun, the words modifying them must be
adjectives or some equivalent of an adjective; and whenever the complement is a noun, or the equivalent of the noun, it
is modified by the same words and word groups that modify the subject and the object.
These modifiers are as follows:—
(1) A possessive: "My memory assures me of this;" "She asked her father's permission."
(2) A word in apposition: "Theodore Wieland, the prisoner at the bar, was now called upon for his defense;" "Him, this
young idolater, I have seasoned for thee."
( 3 ) An adjective: "Great geniuses have the shortest biographies;" "Her father was a prince in Lebanon,—proud,
unforgiving, austere."
(4) Prepositional phrase: "Are the opinions of a man on right and wrong on fate and causation, at the mercy of a broken
sleep or an indigestion?" "The poet needs a ground in popular tradition to work on."
(5) Infinitive phrase: "The way to know him is to compare him, not with nature, but with other men;" "She has a new and
unattempted problem to solve;" "The simplest utterances are worthiest to be written."
(6) Participial phrase: "Another reading, given at the request of a Dutch lady, was the scene from King John;" "This was
the hour already appointed for the baptism of the new Christian daughter."
Exercise.—In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell whether the subject, object, or complement is modified.
II. Modifiers of the Predicate.
Sinc
3 e
5
2 t.he predicate is always a verb, the word modifying it must be an adverb or its equivalent:—(1) Adverb: "Slowly and
sadly we laid him down."
(2) Prepositional phrase: "The little carriage is creeping on at one mile an hour;" "In the tw