The Industrial Arts in Spain by Juan F Riano - HTML preview

No. 486-'64. Bowl, funnel-shaped, with representation of a ship in full sail, with the royal arms of Portugal, 15th century.

The following are also especially worthy of mention:—

No. 7659-'62. Bowl and cover, painted with a scroll diaper in alternate compartments of gold lustre and blue, the cover surmounted by a cupola-shaped ornament in gold lustre. 16th century.

 
VASE DIAPERED WITH IVY OR BRYONY IN GOLDEN LUSTRE. HISPANO-MORESCO, 14TH OR 15TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. 
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No. 489-'64. Plateau with lustred arabesque ornaments in compartments. In the centre are two simulated Arabic inscriptions. 15th century.

 
PLATEAU, DIAPERED AND WITH RAISED RIBS AND STUDS, IN BLUE
AND GOLDEN LUSTRE. THE ARMS OF LEON, CASTILE, AND ARAGON.
HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. 
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No. 1680-'55. Plateau, gold shield in the centre, with the arms of Leon, Castille, and Aragon. The diapered ground is curiously ribbed, and dotted with raised studs. (See woodcut.)

No. 243-'53. Plateau, in the centre an escutcheon of arms of Aragon, Leon, and Castile. (See woodcut.)

 
SALVER, DIAPERED IN GOLDEN LUSTRE, WITH THE SHIELD OF
ARAGON, LEON, AND CASTILE. HISPANO-MORESCO. 15TH OR 16TH CENTURY.
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. 
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No. 104-'69. Vase, with shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily and Portugal.

Specimens of a later date are distinguished by the redness of the lustre, such as No. 327-'66, a bowl, with feather-like ornament in the centre; Nos. 326-'66 and 328-'66 are good examples of this lustred ware of the last and early present century made at Manises, Valencia.

It is almost impossible to classify the existing specimens of Hispano-Moresque pottery. A few examples are marked with the monogram of Manises, or possess some special sign, such as the Eagle of St. John, which would make it appear they were made in the province of Valencia, but as the texts from ancient authors only praise this pottery and give no details of its general characteristics, it is very difficult to assign any given specimens to the manufactories of Aragon and Valencia. The receipts which I have given prove that the ingredients used were the same, the modification in lustre was owing to the different combinations of silver and copper. The system hitherto adopted of classifying this ware by the localities in which it has been purchased is not a safe one, unless borne out by further evidence. All that can be done at the present time is to point out the oldest specimens, and probable period of their manufacture. As a general rule the finest specimens are also the oldest, for this industry decayed after the Moors were expelled from Spain, and Italian pottery was imported into that country in the 16th century.

The opinion which has been so generally accepted that gold lustred pottery was made and exported from the Balearic Islands has been contradicted by Dⁿ. Alvaro Campaner y Fuertes in a letter addressed to Baron Davillier which appeared in the "Museo Balear," Palma, 1875, in which he refutes the Baron's arguments on the pottery which he supposes to have come from that locality.

TERRA COTTAS.—AZULEJOS, OR WALL DECORATIONS OF TILES.—EARTHENWARE.—BUCAROS AND UNGLAZED POTTERY.

The earliest historical notice which I have met with of Terracottas is in a grant made in A.D. 1222, by King Don Fernando el Santo, in favour of the manufacturers of bricks or tiles at Talavera (M. S. Bibl. Nacional Madrid, Dd. 114, p. 17), and another document of a similar kind by his son, King Don Alonso el Sabio A.D. 1281, in favour of the Cathedral of Cordova, "that no pottery works should be allowed inside the town, unless they were established in the same manner as in the time of the Moors." (Mem. Hist. Español, t. ii. p. 45). Although this information is not of great importance, it enables us to infer that in the 13th century an industry existed in Spain which was closely connected with pottery. Baron Davillier mentions a privilege granted by King Dⁿ. Jaime de Aragon to the inhabitants of Jativa, province of Valencia, in which he commands, "that any master potter who made jars, pots, pans, tiles, and bricks, should pay a tribute of one besant yearly for each oven, and be permitted to carry out his industry with no other obligation or service." (Col. Doc. Ineditos, vol. xviii. p. 67.)

The details concerning this industry in Cataluña are more interesting; especially on account of the references given to the marks of the objects proceeding from this manufacture. The potters, who were known by the generic name of olleros sent, in 1257, two individuals to form part of the town council. They formed at that time a guild; in 1314 they agree in their regulations as to the mark to be adopted for their pottery, and the actual spot is mentioned on which every potter was to stamp his wares. This stamp was ordered to be very visible, and instructions are given as to the quality of the clay, and its manipulation, in order to produce pottery of a first-class order. We find statutes in this sense up to 1355. But we cannot find in the "Libro de Ordenanzas" of the potter's guild that any laws existed touching the technical details of this manufacture; most of the regulations refer to the management of the guild from 1304, which was composed of potters, bricklayers, jar-makers, and manufacturers of pottery for domestic purposes of Barcelona. (Capmany, Memorias Historicas, 1779-92, vol. i. part 3, p. 69.)

 
WINE JAR—"TINAJA." SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.

These references are not, however, sufficient to identify the kind of pottery made at that time in Cataluña. It is highly probable that lustred ware was also made there to a great extent, not only because it was the most characteristic produce of the Peninsula, but also because this ware was exported to a great extent, and highly esteemed.

The most important examples of Spanish terra-cotta which have reached us are tinajas, large jars for holding wine and oil.

One of the best tinajas which I know is at the South Kensington Museum, No. 330-'66. (See woodcut.) It is a wine jar, amphora-shaped, and ornamented with incised pattern of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic character. This and similar specimens have always been found in Andalusia and the province of Toledo, and hence we may infer that the chief centres of this industry existed at Toledo and Seville. They continue to be made there, and are used for the same purposes as in the Middle Ages, for keeping stores of wine, oil, meat, grain, etc.

Belonging to this section of objects of a large size, are some specimens of glazed earthenware made for brims of wells. I only know four or five examples in the local museums of Toledo and Cordova; the font of the church of San Salvador, Toledo, belongs also to the same pottery. The brim of a well, at the South Kensington Museum, No. 1763-'71, is of the same manufacture. It was bought at Toledo for three guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green earthenware, with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round, which appear to be of the 14th century (see woodcut on next page). The inscription, which is repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words:

 
"The power, the excellence, and the peace."

There is no difficulty in affirming that this form of earthenware was made at Toledo, for Marineo Siculo, in his interesting volume treating of "De las Cosas Memorables de España," Alcala, 1539, says, "much coarse green and white pottery is made at Toledo."

 
BRIM OF WELL FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.

The manufacture of tiles, as was the case with so many other industries in Spain, was imported by the Arabs. In the Middle Ages it attained great importance, and has never ceased in Spain up to the present day. The earliest tiles (azulejos) made in Spain are composed of small pieces let into the wall, forming geometrical patterns. The proceeding is similar to that employed by the workers of Byzantine mosaic,—tile decoration undoubtedly took the place of this mosaic work in Moorish buildings. It is difficult to fix the precise period when they were first made, but it must have been posterior to the 10th century, when Moorish architecture underwent a radical change in its system of decoration. The oldest tiles which exist in Spain are at the Palace of the Alhambra, Granada. They belong to the 14th century. The great variety of their design may be seen in Owen Jones' "Plans and elevations of the Alhambra," London, fol. 1842, and the fine work published by the Spanish government, "Monumentos Arquitectonicos." We can judge of the style adopted by two interesting fragments, both of which came from the Alhambra, No. 1104-'53, No. 324-'64, South Kensington Museum.

The earliest mention which I have found of this manufacture occurs in a letter from Doña Juana de Mendoza, the wife of the Almirante de Castilla, which is addressed to the lady abbess of the nunnery of Santo Domingo at Toledo. She begs that a large number of "azulejos" of different colours, black, white, yellow, and green should be sent to her. She alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was expecting a master potter from Seville to place these tiles in their proper places. This shows us that it was only in the province of Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into geometrical sections and mosaic patterns. This letter is not dated, but it is bound up with other documents of 1422, and evidence exists to prove that both the Almirante and his wife were dead in 1431. The locality for which the tiles were required was probably Palencia; the convent of Santa Clara was built by them at that time, and they both were buried there. It was extremely difficult to cut and join together these tiles; the workmen who did so had to pass through a regular examination in compliance with the municipal ordinances drawn up in the 15th century; without this requisite they were not allowed to exercise their trade.

We know, from documents existing at the Archives of the Alhambra, at Granada, that tiles were made there at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. We find the names of Antonio Tenorio, Gaspar Hernandez, and Pedro Tenorio working there at that time as master potters.

The use of these azulejos was not restricted to Moorish buildings; they were largely employed to decorate the walls of Christian churches, convents, palaces, and private houses. The style of work, however, soon changed, for instead of being made of mosaic work, they were formed of a single piece like the ordinary tiles, but imitating the Moorish colours. In the 16th century designs of the Renaissance style alternated with these, although the system and colouring continued the same. This style continued in vogue until the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610. A fine collection may be seen at the South Kensington Museum of 200 tiles, in which upwards of 150 varieties of design will be found, Nos. 308-'66 and 367-'66. Their chief characteristic is that only pure colours are used without gradations or half tints. Lustred reflets are very seldom met with in tiles; the only examples I know are two beautiful plaques of the 14th century of a pale lustre which are on either side of the entrance door of the Moorish saloon called Cuarto Real de S^to. Domingo, at Granada; some small polygons of copper-coloured lustre at the Tower of la Cautiva, Granada: some few details in the coats of arms which are let into the tiles which adorn the walls of the Chapel at the Alhambra, and some few tiles with the arms of the Mendozas at the Casa de Pilatos, Seville.

A few dishes belong also to the 15th century, ornamented with the same colouring as the tiles without metallic lustre, and generally decorated with fantastic animals. They are very scarce. Two examples exist at the South Kensington Museum, Nos. 1459 and 1461-'70. They probably were made at Seville; all those I have seen come from there, and we know that the pottery from Seville was much esteemed. In Pedro de Medina's "Libro de Grandezas y Cosas Memorables de España," Sevilla, 1549, fol. Iii., he says, "In this town of Triana much excellent pottery of Malaga is made, coloured white and yellow, and of different sorts and kinds. This pottery is made in about fifty houses, and it is exported from here to many localities. In the same manner excellent azulejos are made, of great variety of colour and design. And likewise fine reliefs of men and other things. Great quantities of these azulejos are taken to different localities."

At the introduction of Italian forms of art in Spain, at the beginning of the 16th century, artistic pottery divided itself into two schools—one kept to the traditional designs and strong tones of colour, the other used shaded colours, and especially yellow and blue tints, at times imitating Italian maiolica, but always following the decoration characteristic of the Renaissance style.

The Italian influence, and its finest results in Spain may be favourably studied in Seville, in the tile decorations of the chapel at the Alcazar, the doorway of the convent of Santa Paula, and a remarkable sepulchre decorated with tiles at the church of St. Anne at Triana. All these tile decorations are signed by the same person, and it would be difficult to find any more remarkable.

The azulejos at the Alcazar represent a picture in the manner and style of Pietro Perugino; they are admirable in colour and design. Those which decorate the sepulchre at the church of St. Anne have the following inscription, "Niculoso Francesco italiano me fecit, en el agno del mil ccccciii." Some very interesting tiles also may be seen in one of the rooms in the lower part of the Alcazar; they are marked in the following manner: A.V.S.T.A.—A.V.G.W.S.T.A. 1577-1578. On the floor of the pavilion of the Emperor Charles V. in the garden there are also some fine tiles which are signed Juan Hernandez, 1540.

We find mention in Cean Bermudez of a painter of azulejos named Juan Flores, a native of Flanders; he painted tiles for the royal palaces of Madrid, the Pardo and Segovia; he was appointed Maestro Azulejero by Philip II. in 1565.

Returning to other examples of earthenware we meet with the ancient manufactures of the Balearic Islands, although it is not easy to determine the kind of pottery which was really made there. Bernardo da Uzzano, in 1442, made a commercial treaty, (vide Davillier, "Faïences Hispano Moresques," p. 26), in which he mentions the "faïence" made at Mallorca and Minorca, which "was exported to a very large extent." The royal Ordinances for the island of Iviza, which have not been mentioned by either of these authors, state that the principal traffic and the greatest industry of ancient times of the island of Iviza consisted in some vessels of the finest earthenware, well baked and curiously worked, of which an innumerable quantity were sent off to Africa and other places, not only on account of the excellence of their worth, which was admirable, but the speciality of the clay, which preserved from poison. ("Reales Ordinaciones de Iviza," Palma, 1751).

Manufactures of pottery also existed in a great number of localities in Spain; the most important centres were at Talavera, Valencia, and Triana. Judging by the manner in which different authors praise the earthenware of Talavera, its productions were evidently the most esteemed. The earliest mention we find of Talavera pottery occurs in a MS. volume dated 1560—a history of this town, in which mention is made of "white, green, blue and other coloured Talavera ware." In the inventory of the effects of D^na. Juana, a sister of Philip II., 1573, several objects of "white earthenware of Talavera" are mentioned. In a report drawn up by order of Philip II. 1576, it is stated that Talavera "produced fine white glazed earthenware-tiles, and other pottery, which supplied the country, part of Portugal and India." Father Ramon de la Higuera in his "Republicas del Mundo," 1595, mentions the ware of Talavera in terms of the highest praise. In a MS. history of Talavera written in 1651, (Bib. Nac. Madrid, G. 112,) the author, Father Alfonso de Ajofrin, says that "the pottery is as good as that of Pisa, a large number of azulejos are also made to adorn the front of altars, churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and small specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight different kilns. Four other kilns are kept to make common earthenware. Red porous clay vases and drinking cups are baked in two other kilns, in a thousand different shapes in imitation of birds and other animals, also brinquiños for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was brought them." In another MS. history of Talavera (Bibl. Nac. G. 187) we find mention of "perfect imitations of oriental china," and that the pottery made there, "was used all over Spain, and sent to India, France, Flanders, Italy and other countries, and was esteemed everywhere for the perfection of the colouring and brilliancy of the glaze."

This information may be increased by quoting another interesting MS. on the history of this town (Bib. Nac. F. 142) in which the writer, Fr. Andres de Torrejon, who professed in the convent of Santa Catalina in 1568, says:—"The earthenware pottery made here has reached to a great height of perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, bucaros and brinquiños are made of different kinds, dishes and table centres, and imitations of snails, owls, dogs and every kind of fruits, olives, and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, and the imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are most excellent. Every one wonders that in so small a town such excellent things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made with tin and sand, it is now found to be more acceptable than coloured earthenware, so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this town although they have in their houses dinner services of silver, buy earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, it is now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as silk."

"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides the great variety of objects which they make, the different medals which they place upon them, they have invented some small brinquiños of so small and delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture of this pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who eat the pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their confessors to check this custom."

In a volume of "Relaciones Topograficas de los Pueblos de España hechas en 1576," (MS. in fol. t. ii.) we find, in speaking of Talavera, that the author says: "What is most excellent there is the white pottery, and tiles and other objects of this earthenware with which the kingdom and part of Portugal are provided."

In Larruga's "Memorias Politicas y Economicas," (vol. x. Madrid, 1741,) we find, p. 22, that "the manufactory of fine earthenware of Talavera de la Reyna continued to make much pottery of importance until 1720: eight kilns existed then, which employed more than 400 persons, men, women and children. These manufactories possessed at that time large sums of money. From that time this industry decayed to such an extent, that in 1730 only four kilns existed where pottery of a very inferior kind was produced."

The industry was revived later on in the century, but the finest specimens are of an earlier date. Larruga adds, in p. 17, vol. x., of his "Memorias," that "Talavera ware is of a lighter clay than the imitations of this earthenware which were made in other localities."

Pottery of a similar kind was also made in different other localities of Spain. Mendez Silva says that at Puente del Arzobispo, near Toledo, "fine pottery is manufactured in about 8 kilns, which produce more than 40,000 ducats yearly." ("Relacion General de España," Madrid, 1645, fo1. 32.) Paton likewise in his "Historia de Jaen," 1628, writes that "the white unglazed earthenware made at these towns, is very remarkable for the curious manner in which they imitate different figures of animals, such as porcupines, fish, syrens, tortoises, &c." Objects of a similar kind are still made in Spain.

The English traveller Clarke, in his "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation during the years 1760-1761," London, 1763, p. 263, says, "the pottery fabrics are very numerous and excellent, particularly Talavera." And in "Annales de l'Espagne," by Alvarez de Colmenares, Amsterdam, 1741, we find, p. 187, in speaking of Talavera, that "On y fait des ouvrages vernissés d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures de bon goût; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes Orientales; on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend plus de 50,000 ducats par an."

Udal ap Rhys in his "An Account of the Most Remarkable Places and Curiosities in Spain and Portugal," London, 1749, in speaking of Talavera says, "It is noted also for a very curious kind of earthenware that is made in imitation of China."

Although we find by the remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors that earthenware of every description was made at Talavera, the specimens which are more generally met with may be divided into two groups, which are painted on a white ground, either in blue, or in colours in the manner of Italian maiolica. The most important examples which have reached us consist of bowls of different sizes, dishes, vases, tinajas, holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decorations. Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast extent, the colouring was successful but the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the time, and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste so general in Spain in the 18th century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, orange, blue and green.

Several specimens of this manufacture are in the South Kensington Museum; among these may be noted—

No. 327-'76. A large vase painted in blue with cavaliers and men on foot in a hilly landscape, on the shoulder are the words "Silva Coronel."

No. 1282-'71. Holy-water vessel, with raised flowers and scrolls of foliage with polychrome decoration.

No. 1281-'71. Soup tureen and cover, white, with raised scrolls and groups of painted flowers.

No. 351-'76. Another soup tureen with cover and stand, painted with garlands and the arms of Portugal. On the cover is a group of fishes and shells in relief.

No. 1279-'71. A bowl decorated within with a bull-fight; outside are storks and trees in green, orange, and manganese. (See woodcut.)

 
EARTHENWARE BOWL. TALAVERA WARE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.

Several pottery works were established in Spain in the 18th century, all of them, in the same manner as the earlier fabriques, modified the system of decorating their wares. In some instances the colours and designs of Italian maiolica were imitated, others copy the blue faïences of Pisa, Genoa, and Savona, while others adopted the styles of Moustiers, Nevers, and Rouen, or English earthenwares.

Ten or twelve manufactories existed at Toledo in the 17th century which imitated Talavera ware; in the 18th they hardly produced anything of importance. Ignacio de Velasco in 1735 founded one at great expense at Toledo in which imitations of Genoese pottery were chiefly made. At the death of Ignacio in 1738, these works passed to his son George; in 1742 Francisco Hernandez directed them, and in 1747 imitated Japanese models. Several specimens proceeding from Toledo, at the South Kensington Museum, painted blue on a white ground, in the style of Savon