[1]. Richard E. Young, Martha A. Smith, and Charles K. Sobeck, “Galileo Probe: In Situ Observations of Jupiter’s Atmosphere,” Science, No. 272 (May 10, 1996), pp. 837–838.
[2]. Mark Wolverton, “The Airplane That Flew Into Space,” American Heritage of Invention and Technology, (summer 2001), pp. 12–20.
[3]. J. Sorensen, “Titanium Matrix Composites—NASP Materials and Structures Augmentation Program,” AIAA Paper 90-5207 (1990); Stanley W. Kandebo, “Boeing 777 to Incorporate New Alloy Developed for NASP,” Aviation Week, May 3, 1993, p. 36; “NASP Materials and Structures Program, Titanium Matrix Composites,” McDonnell-Douglas, Dec. 31, 1991, DTIC ADB-192559, Defense Technical Information Center.
[4]. Walter Dornberger, V-2 (New York: The Viking Press, 1958 ed.), relates its history from the point of view of the German military commander of V-2 development and its principal research facility.
[5]. Michael J. Neufeld, The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 250–251.
[6]. Ronald Smelt, “A Critical Review of German Research on High-Speed Airflow,” Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, vol. 50, No. 432 (Dec. 1946), pp. 899–934; Theodore von Kármán, “Where We Stand: First Report to General of the Army H. H. Arnold on Long Range Research Problems of the AIR FORCES with a Review of German Plans and Developments,” Aug. 22, 1945, vol. II-1, Copy No. 13, including Hsue-shen Tsien, “Reports on the Recent Aeronautical Developments of Several Selected Fields in Germany and Switzerland,” July 1945; Hsue-shen Tsien, “High Speed Aerodynamics,” Dec. 1945; and F.L. Wattendorf, “Reports on Selected Topics of German and Swiss Aeronautical Developments,” June 1945; Peter P. Wegener, The Peenemünde Wind Tunnels: A Memoir (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), pp. 22–24, 70.
[7]. William B. Anspacher, Betty Gay, Donald Marlowe, Paul Morgan, and Samuel Raff, The Legacy of the White Oak Laboratory (Dahlgren, VA: Naval Surface Warfare Center, 2000), pp. 209–210; Donald D. Baals and William R. Corliss, Wind Tunnels of NASA, SP-440 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1981), pp. 51–52; James R. Hansen, Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917–1958, SP-4305 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1987), p. 467.
[8]. Quoted in Hansen, Engineer in Charge, pp. 344–345.
[9]. John V. Becker, “Results of Recent Hypersonic and Unsteady Flow Research at the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 21 (July 1950), pp. 619–628; Patrick J. Johnston and Wallace C. Sawyer, “An Historical Perspective on Hypersonic Aerodynamic Research at the Langley Research Center,” AIAA Paper 88-0230 (1988). For examples of its research, see Charles H. McLellan, Thomas W. Williams, and Mitchel H. Bertram, “Investigation of a Two-Step Nozzle in the Langley 11-inch Hypersonic Tunnel,” NACA TN-2171 (1950); Charles H. McLellan and Thomas W. Williams, “Liquefaction of Air in the Langley 11-inch Hypersonic Tunnel,” NACA TN-3302 (1954).
[10]. John V. Becker, “The X-15 Project: Part I—Origins and Research Background,” Astronautics & Aeronautics, vol. 2, No. 2 (Feb. 1964), pp. 52–61; Charles H. McLellan, “A Method for Increasing the Effectiveness of Stabilizing Surfaces at High Supersonic Mach Numbers,” NACA RM-L54F21 (1954); Baals and Corliss, Wind Tunnels of NASA, pp. 56–57, 94–95; William T. Schaefer, Jr., “Characteristics of Major Active Wind Tunnels at the Langley Research Center,” NASA TM-X-1130 (1965), pp. 12, 27.
[11]. Jacob Neufeld, The Development of Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force, 1945–1960 (Washington, DC: USAF, 1990), p. 293; Col. Edward N. Hall, USAF, “Air Force Missile Experience,” in Lt. Col. Kenneth F. Gantz, ed., The United States Air Force Report on the Ballistic Missile: Its Technology, Logistics, and Strategy (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1958), pp. 47–59; Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990).
[12]. P.H. Rose and W.I. Stark, “Stagnation Point Heat-Transfer Measurements in Dissociated Air,” Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 25, No. 2 (Feb. 1958), pp. 86–97.
[13]. John L. Chapman, Atlas: the Story of a Missile (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960), pp. 28–34, 74; Neufeld, Development of Ballistic Missiles, pp. 78, 44–50, 68–77; G. Harry Stine, ICBM: The Making of the Weapon that Changed the World (New York: Orion Books, 1996), pp. 140–146, 162–174, 186–188.
[14]. Bruno Augenstein, “Rand and North American Aviation’s Aerophysics Laboratory: An Early Interaction in Missiles and Space,” International Astronautical Federation, Paper IAA-98-IAA.2.2.06 (1998); Neufeld, Development of Ballistic Missiles, pp. 259, 102–106, 117; Robert L. Perry, “The Atlas, Thor, Titan, and Minuteman,” in Eugene M. Emme, ed., The History of Rocket Technology: Essays on Research, Development, and Utility (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1964), pp. 142–161.
[15]. H. Julian Allen and A.J. Eggers, Jr., “A Study of the Motion and Aerodynamic Heating of Ballistic Missiles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere at High Supersonic Speeds,” NACA TR-1381 (1953); H. Julian Allen, “The Aerodynamic Heating of Atmospheric Entry Vehicles,” in J. Gordon Hall, ed., Fundamental Phenomena in Hypersonic Flow: Proceedings of the International Symposium Sponsored by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966), pp. 6–10; Edwin P. Hartman, Adventures in Research: A History of the Ames Research Center, 1940–1965, NASA SP-4302 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1970), pp. 215–218.
[16]. E.L. Resler, Shao-Chi Lin, and Arthur Kantrowitz, “The Production of High Temperature Gases in Shock Tubes,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 23 (Dec. 1952), p. 1397.
[17]. Frank Kreith, Principles of Heat Transfer (Scranton, PA: International Textbook Co., 1965), pp. 538–545; George W. Sutton, “The Initial Development of Ablation Heat Protection: an Historical Perspective,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 19 (1982), pp. 3–11.
[18]. “Re-Entry Research: The Lockheed X-17,” Flight (Feb. 6, 1959), p. 181.
[19]. James M. Grimwood and Francis Strowd, History of the Jupiter Missile System (Huntsville, AL: U.S. Army Ordnance Missile Command, July 27, 1962), pp. 18–20; Time (Nov. 18, 1957, pp. 19–20, and Dec. 8, 1958, p. 15); Joel W. Powell, “Thor-Able and Atlas Able,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, vol. 37, No. 5 (May 1984), pp. 219–225; General Electric, “Thermal Flight Test Summary Report for Mark 3 Mod 1 Re-Entry Vehicles” (1960), Defense Technical Information Center [DTIC] Report AD-362539; Convair, “Flight Test Evaluation Report, Missile 7D” (1959), DTIC AD-832686.
[20]. Martin Marietta, “SV-5 PRIME Final Flight Test Summary,” Report ER 14465 (1967).
[21]. Marcelle Size Knaack, Post-World War II Fighters, vol. 1 of Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1978), p. 329; Richard A. DeMeis, “The Trisonic Titanium Republic,” Air Enthusiast, vol. 7 (1978), pp. 198–213.
[22]. Lee L. Peterson, “Evaluation Report on X-7A,” AFMDC [Holloman AFB], ADJ 57-8184 (1957); and William A. Ritchie, “Evaluation Report on X-7A (System 601B),” AFMDC DAS-58-8129 (1959).
[23]. Robert S. Houston, Richard P. Hallion, and Ronald G. Boston, “Transiting from Air to Space: The North American X-15,” and John V. Becker, “The Development of Winged Reentry Vehicles: An Essay from the NACA-NASA Perspective, 1952–1963,” in Richard P. Hallion, ed., The Hypersonic Revolution: Eight Case Studies in the History of Hypersonic Technology, vol. 1: From Max Valier to Project PRIME, 1924–1967 (Wright-Patterson AFB: Aeronautical Systems Division, 1987), pp. I–xii, No. 1, 383–386.
[24]. Harry Hansen, Engineer in Charge, NASA SP-4305, p. 428; Hansen, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1956 (New York: New York World-Telegram Corp., 1956), p. 757.
[25]. Dennis Jenkins, X-15: Extending the Frontiers of Flight, NASA SP-2007-562 (Washington, DC: NASA, 2007), pp. 336–337.
[26]. U.S. Air Force Systems Command, History of the Arnold Engineering Development Center (Arnold Air Force Station, TN: AEDC, n.d.); Julius Lukasiewicz, Experimental Methods of Hypersonics (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1973), p. 247.
[27]. Becker, “Development of Winged Reentry Vehicles,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, p. 386.
[28]. Becker, “The X-15 Project,” pp. 52–61. Technical characteristics of Inconel X are from “Inconel X-750 Technical Data” (Sylmar, CA: High Temp Metals, Inc., 2009).
[29]. Richard P. Hallion, On the Frontier: Flight Research at Dryden, 1946–1982, SP-4303 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1984), pp. 70–71.
[30]. McLellan, “A Method for Increasing the Effectiveness of Stabilizing Surfaces,” NACA RM-L54F21 (1954).
[31]. John V. Becker, Norris F. Dow, Maxime A. Faget, Thomas A. Toll, and J.B. Whitten, “Research Airplane Study,” NACA Langley (April 1954).
[32]. Johnny G. Armstrong, “Flight Planning and Conduct of the X-15A-2 Envelope Expansion Program,” AFFTC TD-69-4 (1969).
[33]. William H. Dana, “The X-15 Airplane—Lessons Learned,” AIAA Paper 93-0309 (1993); Joseph Weil, “Review of the X-15 Program,” NASA TN-D-1278 (1962).
[34]. Perry V. Row and Jack Fischel, “X-15 Flight Test Experience,” Astronautics and Aerospace Engineering, vol. 1 (June 1963), pp. 25–32.
[35]. Quotes from “Research Airplane Committee Report on Conference on the Progress of the X-15 Project,” NACA Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1956, p. 84; James I. Kilgore, “The Planes that Never Leave the Ground,” American Heritage of Invention and Technology (winter 1989), pp. 60–62; John P. Smith, Lawrence J. Schilling, and Charles A. Wagner, “Simulation at Dryden Flight Research Facility from 1957 to 1982,” NASA TM-101695 (1989), p. 4; Milton O. Thompson, At the Edge of Space: The X-15 Flight Program (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), pp. 70–71.
[36]. NASA FRC, “Experience with the X-15 Adaptive Flight Control System,” NASA TN-D-6208 (1971); Perry V. Row and Jack Fischel, “Operational Flight-test Experience with the X-15 Airplane,” AIAA Paper 63-075 (1963).
[37]. Wendell H. Stillwell, X-15 Research Results, NASA SP-60 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1965), pp. 37–38; Robert G. Hoey and Richard E. Day, “Mission Planning and Operational Procedures for the X-15 Airplane,” NASA TN-D-1158 (1962), NTRS Document ID 19710070140.
[38]. C.C. Clark and C.H. Woodling, “Centrifuge Simulation of the X-15 Research Aircraft,” NADC MA-5916 (1959); Jenkins, X-15, p. 279; NASA, “Research Airplane Committee Report on Conference on the Progress of the X-15 Project,” (1958), pp. 107–116.
[39]. For the Clark suit’s development, see A. Scott Crossfield with Clay Blair, Jr., Always Another Dawn: The Story of a Rocket Test Pilot (Cleveland: The World Publishing Co., 1960), pp. 253–261; Paul Crickmore, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird (London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1986), pp. 100–102; T.A. Heppenheimer, History of the Space Shuttle, vol. 2, Development of the Shuttle, 1972–81 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), pp. 274–277; Jenkins, X-15, pp. 131–146; Loyd S. Swenson, James M. Grimwood, and Charles Alexander, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1998), pp. 225–231.
[40]. Time, Oct. 27, 1961, p. 89.
[41]. Dana, “The X-15 Airplane—Lessons Learned,” AIAA Paper 93-0309 (1993); Thompson, At the Edge of Space, pp. 200–202; Lawrence W. Taylor and George B. Merrick, “X-15 Airplane Stability Augmentation Systems,” NASA TN-D-1157 (1962); Robert A. Tremant, “Operational Experience and Characteristics of the X-15 Flight Control System,” NASA TN-D-1402 (Dec. 1962), Donald R. Bellman, et al., Investigation of the Crash of the X-15-3 Aircraft on November 15, 1967 (Edwards: NASA Flight Research Center, Jan. 1968), pp. 8–15.
[42]. Kenneth E. Hodge, et al., Proceedings of the X-15 First Flight 30th Anniversary Celebration, CP 3105 (Edwards: NASA, June 8, 1989); Hallion, On the Frontier, pp. 170–172; Donald P. Hearth and Albert E. Preyss, “Hypersonic Technology: Approach to an Expanded Program,” Astronautics and Aeronautics, (Dec. 1976), pp. 20–37; “NASA to End Hypersonic Effort,” Aviation Week and Space Technology (Sept. 26, 1977).
[43]. Clarence J. Geiger, “Strangled Infant: The Boeing X-20A Dyna-Soar,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 189–201; Capt. Roy F. Houchin, “The Rise and Fall of Dyna-Soar: A History of Air Force Hypersonic R&D, 1944–1963,” Air Force Institute of Technology (1995), DTIC ADA-303832.
[44]. John V. Becker, “The Development of Winged Reentry Vehicles: An Essay from the NACA-NASA Perspective, 1952–1963,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 391–407; Alvin Seiff and H. Julian Allen, “Some Aspects of the Design of Hypersonic Boost-Glide Aircraft,” NACA RM-A55E26 (1955); Alfred J. Eggers and Clarence Syvertson, “Aircraft Configurations Developing High Lift-Drag Ratios at High Supersonic Speeds,” NACA RM-A55L05 (1956); Hansen, Engineer in Charge, pp. 467–473.
[45]. Capt. Roy Houchin, “Hypersonic Technology and Aerospace Doctrine,” Air Power History,vol. 46, No. 3 (fall 1999), pp. 4–17; Terry L. Sunday and John R. London, “The X-20 Space Plane: Past Innovation, Future Vision,” in John Becklake, ed., History of Rocketry and Astronautics, vol. 17 (San Diego: American Astronautical Society/Univelt, 1995), pp. 253–284.
[46]. Wyndham D. Miles, “The Polaris,” in Emme, History of Rocket Technology, pp. 162–175.
[47]. Curtis Peebles, “The Origin of the U.S. Space Shuttle—1,” Spaceflight, vol. 21, No. 11 (Nov. 1979), pp. 435–442.
[48]. Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 313, 319–320.
[49]. Ibid., pp. 294–310, 313.
[50]. Boeing, “Summary of Technical Advances: X-20 Program,” Report D2-23418 (July 1964).
[51]. Robert L. Perry, Management of the National Reconnaissance Program, 1960–1965 (Chantilly, VA: NRO, 2001 edition of a Jan. 1969 work), p. 9; Jeffrey Richelson, American Espionage and the Soviet Target (New York: William Morrow, 1987), p. 184; F.R. Riddell and J.D. Teare, “The Differences Between Satellite and Ballistic Missile Re-Entry Problems,” in Morton Alperin and Hollingsworth F. Gregory, eds., Vistas in Aeronautics, vol. 2 (New York: Pergamon Press, 1959), pp. 174–190; Leo Steg, “Materials for Re-Entry Heat Protection of Satellites,” American Rocket Society Journal (Sept. 1960), pp. 815–822.
[52]. Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 347–370.
[53]. Aeronautical Systems Division, Proceedings of 1962 X-20A (Dyna-Soar) Symposium, vol. 3: Structures and Materials (Wright-Patterson AFB, OH: USAF, Mar. 1963), DTIC AD-346192; Howard J. Middendorf, “Materials and Processes for X-20A (Dyna-Soar),” Air Force Systems Command (June 1964), DTIC AD-449685; and William Cowie, “Utilization of Refractory Metals on the X-20A (Dyna-Soar),” Air Force Systems Command (June 1964), DTIC AD-609169.
[54]. ASD, X-20A Proceedings, vol. 3, DTIC AD-346192.
[55]. Ibid.; Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 347–349, 361–370.
[56]. Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” in Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 344–346; R.L. Schleicher, “Structural Design of the X-15,” Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (Oct. 1963), pp. 618–636.
[57]. Richard P. Hallion, “ASSET: Pioneer of Lifting Reentry,” in Hallion, ed., Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 451, 461–465, 501–505; USAF Flight Dynamics Laboratory, “Advanced Technology Program: Technical Development Plan for Aerothermodynamic/Elastic Structural Systems Environmental Tests (ASSET)” (Sept. 1963), pp. 1–5.
[58]. Aviation Week (May 24, 1965), p. 62; McDonnell, “ASSET ASV-3 Flight Test Report,” Report B251 (65FD-234) (Jan. 4, 1965).
[59]. McDonnell, “ASSET ASV-4 Flight Test Report,” Report B707 (65FD-938) (June 25, 1965), p. 156; Hallion, “ASSET,” in Hallion, ed., Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, p. 519.
[60]. USAF Flight Dynamics Laboratory, “ASSET Final Briefing,” Report 65FD-850 (Oct. 5, 1965).
[61]. Paul Cooper and Paul F. Holloway, “The Shuttle Tile Story,” Astronautics & Aeronautics, vol. 19, No. 1 (Jan. 1981), pp. 24–34; Wilson B. Schramm, Ronald P. Banas, and Y. Douglas Izu, “Space Shuttle Tile—The Early Lockheed Years,” Lockheed Horizons, Issue 13 (1983), pp. 2–15; T.A. Heppenheimer, The Space Shuttle Decision, SP-4221 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1999).
[62]. Lockheed Missiles and Space Corporation (LMSC), “Space Transport and Recovery System (Space Shuttle),” LMSC A946332 (Mar. 1969), Shuttle Historical Documents Collection, N. SHHDC-0048, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center; LMSC, “Final Report: Integral Launch and Re-Entry Vehicle,” LMSC A959837 (Dec. 1969), Center for Aerospace Information 70N-31831.
[63]. Richard C. Thuss, Harry G. Thibault, and Arnold Hiltz, “The Utilization of Silica Based Surface Insulation for the Space Shuttle Thermal Protection System,” SAMPE National Technical Conference on Space Shuttle Materials, Huntsville, AL (Oct. 1971), pp. 453–464, Center for Aerospace Information 72A-10764; Schramm, et al., “Space Shuttle Tile”; L.J. Korb, C.A. Morant, R.M. Calland, and C.S. Thatcher, “The Shuttle Orbiter Thermal Protection System,” and Wilson Schramm, “HRSI and LRSI—The Early Years,” both in American Ceramic Society Bulletin, vol. 60 (1981), pp. 1188–1195; L.J. Graham, F.E. Sugg, and W. Gonzalez, “Nondestructive Evaluation of Space Shuttle tiles,” Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, vol. 3 (1982), pp. 680–697; Robert L. Dotts, Donald M. Curry, and Donald L. Tillian, “Orbiter Thermal Protection System,” and William C. Schneider and Glenn J. Miller, “The Changing ‘Scales of the Bird’ (Shuttle Tile Structural Integrity),” in Norman Chaffee, ed., “Space Shuttle Technical Conference,” NASA Conference Publication 2343 (1983).
[64]. Korb, et al., “Shuttle Orbiter TPS”; L. J. Korb and H. M. Clancy, “The Shuttle Thermal Protection System—A Material and Structural Overview,” SAMPE 26th National Symposium, Los Angeles, CA (Apr. 1981), pp. 232–249 (Center for Aerosp