[1]. Erik M. Conway, High-Speed Dreams (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 57.
[2]. Richard A. DeMeis, “The Trisonic Titanium Republic,” Air Enthusiast, No. 7, (July–Sept. 1978), pp. 198–213; Dale D. Myers, “The Navaho Cruise Missile: A Burst of Technology,” Acta Astronautica, vol. 26, (Nov. 8–10, 1992), pp. 741–748.
[3]. David Robarge, Archangel: CIA’s Supersonic A-12 Reconnaissance Aircraft (McLean, VA: CIA Center for the Study of Intelligence, 2007), pp. 11–12; see also Paul F. Crickmore, LockheedSR-71 Blackbird (London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1986), pp. 90–92.
[4]. “Evaluation Report on X-15 Research Aircraft Design Competition,” Aug. 5, 1955, pp. 99–101, Record Group 255, Philadelphia Federal Records Center, National Archives and Records Service.
[5]. “Briefing: Rolls-Royce,” The Economist, (Jan. 10, 2009), pp. 60–62.
[6]. Willy Ley, Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel (New York: Viking, 1957), p. 213.
[7]. Jay Miller, The X-Planes, X-1 to X-45 (North Branch, MN: Specialty Press, 2001). See also Lee L. Peterson, “Evaluation Report on X-7A,” Report AFMDC ADJ 57-8184, Oct. 3, 1957; and William A. Ritchie, “Evaluation Report on X-7A (System 601B),” Report AFMDC DAS 58-8129, Jan. 1959, copies in the Archives of the Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Montgomery, AL.
[8]. Author interview with Paul Czysz, Mar. 13, 1986.
[9]. Time, June 13, 1960, p. 70; P.H. Rose and W.I. Stark, “Stagnation Point Heat-Transfer Measurements in Dissociated Air.” Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences (Feb. 1958), pp. 86–97; P.H. Rose, “Physical Gas Dynamics Research at the Avco Research Lab,” AGARD Report 145, July 1957, p. 1.
[10]. Richard E. Young, Martha A. Smith, and Charles K. Sobeck, “Galileo Probe: In Situ Observations of Jupiter’s Atmosphere,” Science, (May 10, 1996), pp. 837–838.
[11]. James R. Hansen, Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917–1958, NASA SP-4305 (Washington: GPO, 1987), pp. 343–347.
[12]. Data from Matthew J. Donachie, Jr., Superalloys Source Book (Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals, 1984), pp. 3–19.
[13]. Donachie, Introduction to Superalloys, Ref. 13, p. 15.
[14]. Ibid., pp. 3–19.
[15]. Deborah D.L. Chung, Carbon Fiber Composites (Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994), pp. 5–10.
[16]. Paul R. Becker, “Leading-Edge Structural Material System of the Space Shuttle,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, vol. 60, No. 11 (1981), pp. 1210–1214; L.J. Korb, C.A. Morant, R.M. Calland, and C.S. Thatcher, “The Shuttle Orbiter Thermal Protection System,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, vol. 60 (1981), pp. 1188–1193; Anon., “Technical Overview: Oxidation Resistant Carbon-Carbon for the Space Shuttle,” Vought Missiles and Space Company, n.d. (c. 1970).
[17]. NASA, Columbia Accident Investigation Report, (Washington, DC: GPO, 2003), p. 12.
[18]. Chung, Carbon Fiber Composites, pp. 116–118.
[19]. See George W. Sutton, “The Initial Development of Ablation Heat Protection, An Historical Survey,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, (Jan.–Feb. 1982), pp. 3–11; and H. Julian Allen and A.J. Eggers, Jr., “A Study of the Motion and Aerodynamic Heating of Ballistic Missiles Entering the Earth’s Atmosphere at High Supersonic Speeds,” NACA TR-1381 (1953), which summarizes his early research and that of Alfred J. Eggers.
[20]. C.E. Brown, W.J. O’Sullivan, and C.H. Zimmerman, “A Study of the Problems Related to High Speed, High Altitude Flight,” NACA Langley, 1953; Jacob Neufeld, The Development of Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force, 1945–1960 (Washington: Office of Air Force History, 1990).
[21]. Army Ballistic Missile Agency staff, Re-Entry Studies, vol. 1. (Redstone Arsenal, AL: ABMA,Nov. 25, 1958), pp. 2, 24–25, 31, 37–45, 61; Sutton, “Initial Development of Ablation Heat Protection,” pp. 3–11.
[22]. E.R. Riddell and J.D. Teare, “The Differences Between Satellite and Ballistic Missile Re-Entry Problems,” in Morton Alperin and Hollingsworth F. Gregory, eds., Vistas in Astronautics, vol. 2 (New York: Pergamon Press, 1959,) pp. 174–190.
[23]. Leo Steg, “Materials for Re-Entry Heat Protection of Satellites,” American Rocket Society Journal (Sept. 1960), pp. 815–822.
[24]. Time (Nov. 18, 1957), pp. 19–20; (Apr. 27, 1959), p. 16; Joel W. Powell, “Thor-Able and Atlas-Able,” Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (May 1984), pp. 219–225; Kevin C. Ruffner, Corona: America’s First Satellite Program (McLean, VA: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995); see also T.A. Heppenheimer, “Toward Transatmospheric Flight,” (in this volume) for additional details.
[25]. ASD staff, Proceedings of 1962 X-20A (Dyna-Soar) Symposium, vol. 3, Structures and Materials (Wright Patterson AFB: USAF Aeronautical Systems Division, 1963), DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-3-1-2to -5, III-3-1-18 to -23, II-4-2-2 to -8. Re: René 41, see Howard J. Middendorf, “Materials and Processes for X-20A (Dyna-Soar),” Air Force Systems Command, June 1964, DTIC AD-449685, pp. 28, 41.
[26]. William Cowie, “Utilization of Refractory Metals on the X-20A (Dyna-Soar),” Air Force Systems Command, June 1964, DTIC: AD-609169; AD-449685, pp. 3–5, 20; AD-346912, pp. III-3-1-7, III-4-1-2 to -3.
[27]. DTIC AD-346912, p. III-3-1-8; Alvin Seiff and H. Julian Allen, “Some Aspects of the Design of Hypersonic Boost-Glide Aircraft,” NACA RM-A55E26 (1955); and Clarence Geiger, “Strangled Infant: The X-20 Dyna-Soar,” in Richard P. Hallion, ed., Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1 (Bolling AFB: USAF, 1998).
[28]. DTIC: AD-609169; AD-4496845, pp. 3–5, 20; AD-346912, pp. III-3-1-7, III-4-1-2 -3.
[29]. DTIC: AD-346912, p. III-3-1-8; AD-449685, p. iii.
[30]. DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-3-6-2 to -15 (quotes, pp. -8, -11); “Scientific Advisory Board Meme Report of the Aerospace Vehicles Panel on Dyna-Soar Panel Flutter,” Apr. 20, 1962. See also Heppenheimer, “Toward Transatmospheric Flight.”
[31]. DTIC: AD-449685, pp. 49–50; AD-609169, pp. 13, 29; AD-346912, pp. II-3-1-6 to -7, III-3-6-2, III-3-6-13 to -14.
[32]. DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-3-1-8, III-3-4-4; “How Mercury Capsule Design Evolved,” Aviation Week (Sept. 21, 1959), pp. 52–59.
[33]. DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-4-5-3 to -6, III-4-5-16.
[34]. Ibid., pp. III-4-5-13 to -18, III-4-5-35.
[35]. Ibid., pp. III-3-4-4 to -6, III-3-4-20.
[36]. Ibid., p. III-3-4-4; Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” p. 357. See Heppenheimer, “Toward Transatmospheric Flight.”
[37]. DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-4-6-5 to -7.
[38]. Ibid., pp. 3-1-10 to -12; Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” pp. 361–368.
[39]. DTIC: AD-346912, pp. III-4-6-9 to -11; AD-449685, pp. 63–65.
[40]. DTIC: AD-346912, pp. III-4-6-7 to -8; AD-449685, pp. 57–59.
[41]. DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-3-1-10 to -11; Dennis Jenkins, Space Shuttle (Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2001).
[42]. DTIC AD-346912, pp. III-3-1-14 to -15; Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” pp. 347–349, 360–361.
[43]. See Table 1 in Heppenheimer, “Toward Transatmospheric Flight,” for specific advances by structural element. See also Terry L. Sunday and John R. London, “The X-20 Space Plane: Past Innovation, Future Vision,” in John Becklake, ed., History of Rocketry and Astronautics, vol. 17 of the AAS History Series (San Diego: Univelt, 1995), pp. 253–284; Geiger, “Strangled Infant,” pp. 344–346; R.L. Schleicher, “Structural Design of the X-15,” Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (Oct. 1963), pp. 618–636.
[44]. Hallion, Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, p. II-xvi (intro to Geiger case study on X-20).
[45]. “Advanced Technology Program: Technical Development Plan for Aerothermodynamic/Elastic Structural System Environmental Tests (ASSET),” Air Force Systems Command, Sept. 9, 1963.
[46]. Ibid., pp. 4, 11–13; Hallion, “ASSET,” in Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 451, 464–465.
[47]. See Table 2 in Heppenheimer, “Toward Transatmospheric Flight,” for a list of these flights and performance objectives.
[48]. Hallion, “ASSET,” pp. 510–512 (quote, p. 512).
[49]. Ibid., pp. 512–516 (quote, p. 515); “ASSET ASV-3 Flight Test Report,” McDonnell Aircraft Corp., Jan. 4, 1965, DTIC AD-357523; advertisement, Aviation Week, May 24, 1965, p. 62.
[50]. “Fourth ASSET Glider Gathers Data,” Aviation Week, Nov. 2, 1964, pp. 25–26; “ASSET ASV-4 Flight Test Report,” McDonnell Aircraft Corp., June 25, 1965, DTIC AD-366546; Hallion, “ASSET,” pp. 516–519.
[51]. F.M. Anthony, R.R. Fisher, and R.G. Helenbrook, “Selection of Space Shuttle Thermal Protection Systems,” AIAA Paper 71-443 (1971).
[52]. Wilson B. Schramm, Ronald P. Banas, and Y. Douglas Izu, “Space Shuttle Tile—The Early Lockheed Years,” Lockheed Horizons, No. 13, 1983, pp. 2–15.
[53]. Ibid.
[54]. Korb, et al., “The Shuttle Orbiter”; Wilson Schramm, “HRSI and LRSI—The Early Years,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin, vol. 60 (1981), pp. 1194–1195.
[55]. Korb, et al., “The Shuttle Orbiter”; NASA, NASA Space Shuttle Technology Conference, vol. 2, “Structures and Materials,” NASA TM-X-2273 (1971); Richard C. Thuss, Harry G. Thibault, and Arnold Hiltz, “The Utilization of Silica Based Thermal Insulation for the Space Shuttle Thermal Protection System,” CASI 72A-10764, Oct. 1971.
[56]. Schramm, et al., “Space Shuttle Tile”; Schramm, “HRSI.”
[57]. CASI 72A-10764; NASA TM-X-2273, pp. 39–93.
[58]. “Space Shuttle Program Definition: Phase B Extension Final Report,” Grumman B35-43 RP-33 (Mar. 15, 1972); North American Rockwell 1971 Reports SV 71-50 and SV 71-59 (1971); “Interim Report to OMSF: Phase B System Study Extension,” McDonnell-Douglas report (Sept. 1, 1971), p. 36.
[59]. Heppenheimer, The Space Shuttle Decision, NASA SP-4221 (Washington, DC: NASA, 1999); Jenkins, Space Shuttle, pp. 141–150.
[60]. Heppenheimer, Turbulent Skies: The History of Commercial Aviation (New York: John Wiley, 1995); author interview with Max Faget, Mar. 4, 1997.
[61]. L.J. Korb and H.M. Clancy, “The Shuttle Thermal Protection System,” CASI 81A-44344 (1981), pp. 232–249; Korb, et al., “The Shuttle Orbiter,” p. 1189.
[62]. John Mauer interview of Charles Donlan, Oct. 19, 1983, Oral History Series, Shuttle Interviews, Box 1, JSC History Collection, University of Houston-Clear Lake; author interview of Faget, Mar. 4, 1997.
[63]. CASI 81A-44344, Ref. 62.
[64]. “Sortie Module May Cut Experiment Cost,” Aviation Week (Jan. 17, 1972), p. 17; North American Rockwell Report SV 72-19, 1972.
[65]. Schramm, et al., “Space Shuttle Tile,” Ref. 53, pp. 11–14; William S. Hieronymus, “Two Reusable Materials Studied for Orbiter Thermal Protection,” Aviation Week (Mar. 27, 1972), p. 48.
[66]. Heppenheimer, Development of the Space Shuttle, 1972–1981, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002); Jenkins, Space Shuttle.
[67]. NASA SP-4221, pp. 335–340, 348–349; Grumman Report B35-43 RP-33; Michael L. Yaffee, “Program Changes Boost Grumman Shuttle,” Aviation Week (July 12, 1963), pp. 36–39.
[68]. “External LH2 Tank Study Final Report,” McDonnell-Douglas Report MDC E076-1, June 30, 1971.
[69]. NASA SP-4221, pp. 420–422; Heppenheimer, Development, p. 188.
[70]. Miller, X-Planes, pp. 256–261; “SV-5D PRIME Final Flight Test Summary,” Martin Marietta Report ER-14465, Sept. 1967; William J. Normyle, “Manned Flight Tests to Seek Lifting-Body Technology,” Aviation Week (May 16, 1966), pp. 64–75; John L. Vitelli and Richard P. Hallion, “Project PRIME: Hypersonic Reentry from Space,” in Hallion, ed., Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 641, 648–649.
[71]. Martin Marietta Report ER-14465, p. I-1; Vitelli and Hallion, “Project PRIME,” in Hallion, ed., Hypersonic Revolution, vol. 1, pp. 694–702; B.K. Thomas, “USAF Nears Lifting Body Tests,” Aviation Week (July 10, 1967), pp. 99–101.
[72]. Scott Pace, “Engineering Design and Political Choice: The Space Shuttle 1969-72,” master’s thesis (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, May 1982), pp. 179–188.
[73]. “Briefing: Rolls-Royce,” The Economist (Jan. 10, 2009), pp. 60–62.
[74]. Nitin P. Padture, Maurice Gelland, and Eric H. Jordan, “Thermal Barrier Coatings for Gas-Turbine Engine Applications,” Science, vol. 296 (Apr. 12, 2002), pp. 280–284.
[75]. Robert A. Miller, “History of Thermal Barrier Coatings for Gas Turbine Engines,” NASA TM-2009-215459 (2009).
[76]. G.W. Goward, “Seventeen Years of Thermal Barrier Coatings,” in Department of Energy, Proceedings of the Workshop on Coatings for Advanced Heat Engines, Castine, ME, July 27–30, 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 1987).
[77]. Author interview with Robert A. Miller, June 10, 2009; see also Miller, NASA TM-2009-215459.
[78]. Dong-ming Zhu and Miller, “Investigation of Thermal High Cycle and Low Cycle Fatigue Mechanisms of Thick Thermal Barrier Coatings,” Materials Science and Engineering, vol. A245 (l998), pp. 212–223.
[79]. Miller interview.
[80]. Zhu and Miller, “Development of Advanced Low Conductivity Thermal Barrier Coatings,” International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology, vol. l, (2004), pp. 86–94.
[81]. R. McCallum, “Casting Critical Components,” Superalloys Source Book, pp. 286–291.
[82]. J.E. Northwood, “Improving Turbine Blade Performance by Solidification Control,” Superalloys Source Book, pp. 292–296.
[83]. M. Gell, D.H. Duhl, and A.F. Giami, “The Development of Single Crystal Turbine Blades,” Superalloys Source Book, pp. 297–306.
[84]. Heppenheimer, “Making Planes from Powder,” High Technology (Sept. 1986), pp. 54–55; author interview of Philip Parrish, Mar. 21, 1986.
[85]. J. Sorensen, “Titanium Matrix Composites—NASP Materials and Structures Augmentation Program,” AIAA Paper 90-5207 (1990); Stanley W. Kandebo, “Boeing 777 to Incorporate New Alloy Developed for NASP,” Aviation Week (May 3, 1993), p. 36; “NASP Materials and Structures Program: Titanium Matrix Composites,” McDonnell-Douglas, DTIC ADB-192559, (Dec. 31, 1991).
[86]. John Bradley, “Test and Evaluation Report for Carbon/Carbon Wing Box Component.” General Dynamics, DTIC ADB-191627, (Feb. 21, 1992).
[87]. Leonard David, “Lift for Public Space Travel,” Aerospace America (Feb. 2009), pp. 24–29.
[88]. Rockwell International, “High Conductivity Composites: Executive Summary, Copper Materials, Beryllium Materials, Coatings, Ceramic Materials and Joining,” DTIC ADB-191898 (Mar. 1993); Terence Ronald, “Status and Applications of Materials Developed for NASP,” AIAA Paper 95-6131 (1995).
[89]. Frank C. Conahan, “National Aero-Space Plane: Restructuring Further Research and Development Efforts,” General Accounting Office Report NSIAD-93-71 (Dec. 3, 1992), table, p. 20.