the way in which an organization 's broad marketing strategies are translated into market-
ing program s for action.
Product
Products (and services)-the primary marketing mix element that satis-
fied customer wants and needs-provide the main link between the organization and its
customers. Marketing organizations must be ready to alter products as dic tated by changes
in competitive strategies or changes in other elements of the organization's environment.
Many organizations have a vast array of products in their mix. Ideally, each of the prod-
ucts is profitable. But this is often not the case, so some tough decisions must be made con-
cerning the length of time an unsuccessful product is kept on the market.
Distribution
The organization's distributi on system moves the product to the final
consumer. Because there are many alternatives when selecting a distribution channel , mar-
keting management must have a clear understanding of the types of distributors, of the trends
influencing those distributors, and of how those di stributors are perceived by customers.
Communication (Promotion)
The product's benefits must be communicated to the
distributors and to the final customers. Therefore, the marketing organization must provide
marketing information that is received favorably by distributors and final customers. Mar-
keting organizations, throu gh pro motion, provide information by way of advertising, sales
promotions,
public relations, and packaging.
Price
Fi'lally, marketers must price their products in such a way that customers believe
they
receiving fair value. Price is the primary means by which customers judge the attrac-
tiveness of a product or service. Moreover, price is a reflection of all the activities of an
organization. Finally, price is a competitive tool, in that it is used as a basis for compari-
son of product and perceived value across different organizations.
Decisions about the marketing mix variables are interrelated. Each of the marketing
mix variables must be coordinated with the other elements of the marketing program. Consider, for a moment, a situation in which a firm has two product alternatives (deluxe and
economy), two price alternatives ($6 and $3) , two promotion alternatives (advertising and
couponing), and two distribution alternatives (department stores and specialty stores). Taken
together, the firm has a total of 16 possible marketing mix combinations. Naturally, some of these appear to be in conflict, such as the "deluxe" product/low price combination. Nevertheless, the organization must consider many of the possible alternative marketing pro-
grams. The problem is magnified by the existence of competitors. The organization must
find the right combination of product, price, promotion, and distribution so that it can gain a differential advantage over its competitors. (All the marketing mix elements will be discussed in more detail in later chapters of this book.)
Even a well-designed marketing program that has been thro ugh a thorough evalua-
tion of alternatives will fail if its implementation is poor. Implementation involves such things as determining where to promote the product, getting the product to the ultimate consumer,
putting a price on the product, and setting a commission rate for the salespeople. Once a
decision is nade, a marketing manager mu st decide how to best implement the terms of
the plan.
Scandim:.vian Airlines (SAS) provides a good example of an organization that has suc-
cessfully implemented their marketing strategy. SAS had good on-time performance, a good
safety record and many services designed to make flying easier for its customers. How-
MARKETING: DEFINITION AND JUSTIFICATION
21
ever, these were not enough to improve SAS revenue. Other things had to be done to attract
business-class customers. T h e approach taken by SAS was largely symbolic in nature. They
put everyone who bought a full-price ticket in "Euroclass," entitling them to use a special boarding card, an executive waiting lounge, designer steel cutlery, and a small napkin clip
that could be taken as a collector's item. These and other values were provided at no extra
cost to the customer. The approach was very successful; business class passengers flocked
to SAS, since they appreciated the perceived increase in value for the price of a ticket.
The Budget
Marketing mix components must be evaluated as part of an overall marketing strategy. There-
fore, the organization must establish a marketing budget based on the required marketing
effort to influence consumers. The marketing budget represents a plan to aaocate expen-
ditures to
of the components of the marketing mix. For example, the firm must estab-
lish an advertising budget as part of the marketing budget and allocate expenditures to various
types of advertising media-television, newspapers, magazines . A sales promotion budget
should also be determined, allocating money for coupons , product samples, and traue
promotions . SimilarlY, budgets are required for personal selling, distribution , and product
development.
How much should be spent? Consider the following example. A common question
that marketers frequently ask is, "Are we spending enough (or too much) to promote the
sale of our products?" A reasonable answer would revolve around another consideration:
"What do we want to accomplish? What are our goals?" The discussion should next tum
to the methods for achievement of goals and the removal of obstacles to these goals. This
step is often skipped or avoided.
Usually, when the question is asked, "Are we spending enough?" an automatic answer
is given, in terms of what others spend . Knowing what others in the same industry spend
can be important to an organization whose performance lags behind the competition or to
an organization that suspects that its expenditures are higher than they need to be. But gen-
erally, knowing what others spend leads to an unproductive "keeping-up- with-the-Joneses"
attitude . it also assumes that the others know what they are doing.
Evaluating Results
No marketing program is planned and implemented pelfectly. Marketing managers will tell
you that they experience many surprises during the course of their activities. In an effOlt to ensure that performance goes accOfd ing to plans, marketing managers establish controls
that allow marketers to evaluate results and identify needs for modifications in marketing.
strategies and programs. Surprises occur, but marketing managers who have established sound
control procedures can react to surprises quickly and effectively.
Marketing
involves a number of decisions. One decision is what
to
monitor. Some organizations monitor their entire marketing program, while others choose
to monitor only a part of it, such as their sales force or their advertising program. A sec-
ond set of decisions concerns thc establishment of standards for perfolmance; e.g. , market
share, profitability, or sales. A third set of decisions concerns how to collect infOlmation
for making comparisons between actual performance and standards. Finally, to the extent
that discrepancies exist between actual and planned performance, adjustments in the mar-
keting program or the strategic plan mu st be made.
Once a plan is put into action, a marketing manager must still gather information related
to the effectiveness with which the plan was implemented. Information on sales, profits,
reactions of consumers, and reactions of competitors must be collected and analyzed so
that a marketing manager can identify new problems and opportunities.
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