1. Probability is the appearance of agreement upon fallible proofs. As demonstration is the showing
the agreement or disagreement of two ideas by the intervention of one or more proofs, which have a
constant, immutable, and visible connexion one with another; so probability is nothing but the
appearance of such an agreement or disagreement by the intervention of proofs, whose connexion
is not constant and immutable, or at least is not perceived to be so, but is, or appears for the most
part to be so, and is enough to induce the mind to judge the proposition to be true or false, rather
than the contrary. For example: in the demonstration of it a man perceives the certain, immutable
connexion there is of equality between the three angles of a triangle, and those intermediate ones
which are made use of to show their equality to two right ones; and so, by an intuitive knowledge of
the agreement or disagreement of the intermediate ideas in each step of the progress, the whole
series is continued with an evidence, which clearly shows the agreement or disagreement of those
three angles in equality to two right ones: and thus he has certain knowledge that it is so. But
another man, who never took the pains to observe the demonstration, hearing a mathematician, a
man of credit, affirm the three angles of a triangle to be equal to two right ones, assents to it, i.e.,
receives it for true: in which case the foundation of his assent is the probability of the thing; the proof
being such as for the most part carries truth with it: the man on whose testimony he receives it, not
being wont to affirm anything contrary to or besides his knowledge, especially in matters of this kind:
so that that which causes his assent to this proposition, that the three angles of a triangle are equal
to two right ones, that which makes him take these ideas to agree, without knowing them to do so, is
the wonted veracity of the speaker in other cases, or his supposed veracity in this.
2. It is to supply our want of knowledge. Our knowledge, as has been shown, being very narrow, and
we not happy enough to find certain truth in everything which we have occasion to consider; most of
the propositions we think, reason, discourse--nay, act upon, are such as we cannot have undoubted
knowledge of their truth: yet some of them border so near upon certainty, that we make no doubt at
all about them; but assent to them as firmly, and act, according to that assent, as resolutely as if
they were infallibly demonstrated, and that our knowledge of them was perfect and certain. But there
being degrees herein, from the very neighbourhood of certainty and demonstration, quite down to
improbability and unlikeness, even to the confines of impossibility; and also degrees of assent from
full assurance and confidence, quite down to conjecture, doubt, and distrust: I shall come now,
(having, as I think, found out the bounds of human knowledge and certainty,) in the next place, to
consider the several degrees and grounds of probability, and assent or faith.
3. Being that which makes us presume things to be true, before we know them to be so. Probability
is likeliness to be true, the very notation of the word signifying such a proposition, for which there be
arguments or proofs to make it pass, or be received for true. The entertainment the mind gives this
sort of propositions is called belief, assent, or opinion, which is the admitting or receiving any
proposition for true, upon arguments or proofs that are found to persuade us to receive it as true,
without certain knowledge that it is so. And herein lies the difference between probability and
certainty, faith, and knowledge, that in all the parts of knowledge there is intuition; each immediate
idea, each step has its visible and certain connexion: in belief, not so. That which makes me
believe, is something extraneous to the thing I believe; something not evidently joined on both sides
to, and so not manifestly showing the agreement or disagreement of those ideas that are under
consideration.
4. The grounds of probability are two: conformity with our own experience, or the testimony of
others' experience. Probability then, being to supply the defect of our knowledge and to guide us
where that fails, is always conversant about propositions whereof we have no certainty, but only
some inducements to receive them for true. The grounds of it are, in short, these two following:--
First, The conformity of anything with our own knowledge, observation, and experience.
Secondly, The testimony of others, vouching their observation and experience. In the testimony of
others is to be considered: 1. The number. 2. The integrity. 3. The skill of the witnesses. 4. The
design of the author, where it is a testimony out of a book cited. 5. The consistency of the parts, and
circumstances of the relation. 6. Contrary testimonies.
5. In this, al the arguments pro and con ought to be examined, before we come to a judgment.
Probability wanting that intuitive evidence which infallibly determines the understanding and
produces certain knowledge, the mind, if it will proceed rationally, ought to examine all the grounds
of probability, and see how they make more or less for or against any proposition, before it assents
to or dissents from it; and, upon a due balancing the whole, reject or receive it, with a more or less
firm assent, proportionably to the preponderancy of the greater grounds of probability on one side or
the other. For example:--
If I myself see a man walk on the ice, it is past probability; it is knowledge. But if another tells me he
saw a man in England, in the midst of a sharp winter, walk upon water hardened with cold, this has
so great conformity with what is usually observed to happen that I am disposed by the nature of the
thing itself to assent to it; unless some manifest suspicion attend the relation of that matter of fact.
But if the same thing be told to one born between the tropics, who never saw nor heard of any such
thing before, there the whole probability relies on testimony: and as the relators are more in number,
and of more credit, and have no interest to speak contrary to the truth, so that matter of fact is like to
find more or less belief. Though to a man whose experience has always been quite contrary, and
who has never heard of anything like it, the most untainted credit of a witness will scarce be able to
find belief.
The king of Siam. As it happened to a Dutch ambassador, who entertaining the king of Siam with
the particularities of Holland, which he was inquisitive after, amongst other things told him that the
water in his country would sometimes, in cold weather, be so hard that men walked upon it, and that
it would bear an elephant, if he were there. To which the king replied, Hitherto I have believed the
strange things you have told me, because I look upon you as a sober fair man, but now I am sure
you lie.
6. Probable arguments capable of great variety. Upon these grounds depends the probability of any
proposition: and as the conformity of our knowledge, as the certainty of observations, as the
frequency and constancy of experience and the number and credibility of testimonies do more or
less agree or disagree with it, so is any proposition in itself more or less probable. There is another,
I confess, which, though by itself it be no true ground of probability, yet is often made use of for one,
by which men most commonly regulate their assent, and upon which they pin their faith more than
anything else, and that is, the opinion of others; though there cannot be a more dangerous thing to
rely on, nor more likely to mislead one; since there is much more falsehood and error among men
than truth and knowledge. And if the opinions and persuasions of others, whom we know and think
well of, be a ground of assent, men have reason to be Heathens in Japan, Mahometans in Turkey,
Papists in Spain, Protestants in England, and Lutherans in Sweden. But of this wrong ground of
assent I shall have occasion to speak more at large in another place.