is present. For, its greatness being no more than what shall be really
tasted when enjoyed, men are apt enough to lessen that; to make it give
place to any present desire; and conclude with themselves that, when it
comes to trial, it may possibly not answer the report or opinion that
generally passes of it: they having often found that, not only what
others have magnified, but even what they themselves have enjoyed with
great pleasure and delight at one time, has proved insipid or nauseous
at another; and therefore they see nothing in it for which they should
forego a present enjoyment. But that this is a false way of judging,
when applied to the happiness of another life, they must confess; unless
they will say, God cannot make those happy he designs to be so. For that
being intended for a state of happiness, it must certainly be agreeable
to every one's wish and desire: could we suppose their relishes as
different there as they are here, yet the manna in heaven will suit
every one's palate. Thus much of the wrong judgment we make of present
and future pleasure and pain, when they are compared together, and so
the absent considered as future.
68. Wrong judgment in considering Consequences of Actions.
(II). As to THINGS GOOD OR BAD IN THEIR CONSEQUENCES, and by the aptness
that is in them to procure us good or evil in the future, we judge amiss
several ways.
1. When we judge that so much evil does not really depend on them as in
truth there does.
2. When we judge that, though the consequence be of that moment, yet it
is not of that certainty, but that it may otherwise fall out, or else by
some means be avoided; as by industry, address, change, repentance, &c.
That these are wrong ways of judging, were easy to show in every
particular, if I would examine them at large singly: but I shall only
mention this in general, viz. that it is a very wrong and irrational
way of proceeding, to venture a greater good for a less, upon uncertain
guesses; and before a due examination be made, proportionable to the
weightiness of the matter, and the concernment it is to us not to
mistake. This I think every one must confess, especial y if he considers
the usual cause of this wrong judgment, whereof these following are
some:--
69. Causes of this.
(i) IGNORANCE: He that judges without informing himself to the utmost
that he is capable, cannot acquit himself of judging amiss.
(i) INADVERTENCY: When a man overlooks even that which he does know.
This is an affected and present ignorance, which misleads our judgments
as much as the other. Judging is, as it were, balancing an account, and
determining on which side the odds lie. If therefore either side be
huddled up in haste, and several of the sums that should have gone into
the reckoning be overlooked and left out, this precipitancy causes as
wrong a judgment as if it were a perfect ignorance. That which most
commonly causes this is, the prevalency of some present pleasure or
pain, heightened by our feeble passionate nature, most strongly wrought
on by what is present. To check this precipitancy, our understanding and
reason were given us, if we wil make a right use of them, to search and
see, and then judge thereupon. How much sloth and negligence, heat
and passion, the prevalency of fashion or acquired indispositions do
severally contribute, on occasion, to these wrong judgments, I shall not
here further inquire. I shall only add one other false judgment, which
I think necessary to mention, because perhaps it is little taken notice
of, though of great influence.
70. Wrong judgment of what is necessary to our Happiness.
Al men desire happiness, that is past doubt: but, as has been already
observed, when they are rid of pain, they are apt to take up with any
pleasure at hand, or that custom has endeared to them; to rest satisfied
in that; and so being happy, till some new desire, by making them
uneasy, disturbs that happiness, and shows them that they are not so,
they look no further; nor is the wil determined to any action in
pursuit of any other known or apparent good. For since we find that we
cannot enjoy all sorts of good, but one excludes another; we do not fix
our desires on every apparent greater good, unless it be judged to be
necessary to our happiness: if we think we can be happy without it, it
moves us not. This is another occasion to men of judging wrong; when
they take not that to be necessary to their happiness which really is
so. This mistake misleads us, both in the choice of the good we aim at,
and very often in the means to it, when it is a remote good. But, which
way ever it be, either by placing it where really it is not, or by
neglecting the means as not necessary to it;--when a man misses his
great end, happiness, he wil acknowledge he judged not right. That
which contributes to this mistake is the real or supposed unpleasantness
of the actions which are the way to this end; it seeming so preposterous
a thing to men, to make themselves unhappy in order to happiness, that
they do not easily bring themselves to it.
71. We can change the Agreeableness or Disagreeableness in Things.
The last inquiry, therefore, concerning this matter is,--Whether it
be in a man's power to change the pleasantness and unpleasantness that
accompanies any sort of action? And as to that, it is plain, in many
cases he can. Men may and should correct their palates, and give relish
to what either has, or they suppose has none. The relish of the mind is
as various as that of the body, and like that too may be altered; and
it is a mistake to think that men cannot change the displeasingness or
indifferency that is in actions into pleasure and desire, if they will
do but what is in their power. A due consideration will do it in some
cases; and practice, application, and custom in most. Bread or tobacco
may be neglected where they are shown to be useful to health, because of
an indifferency or disrelish to them; reason and consideration at first
recommends, and begins their trial, and use finds, or custom makes them
pleasant. That this is so in virtue too, is very certain. Actions are
pleasing or displeasing, either in themselves, or considered as a means
to a greater and more desirable end. The eating of a well-seasoned dish,
suited to a man's palate, may move the mind by the delight itself that
accompanies the eating, without reference to any other end; to which the
consideration of the pleasure there is in health and strength (to which
that meat is subservient) may add a new GUSTO, able to make us swal ow
an il -relished potion. In the latter of these, any action is rendered
more or less pleasing, only by the contemplation of the end, and the
being more or less persuaded of its tendency to it, or necessary
connexion with it: but the pleasure of the action itself is best
acquired or increased by use and practice. Trials often reconcile us to
that, which at a distance we looked on with aversion; and by repetitions
wear us into a liking of what possibly, in the first essay, displeased
us. Habits have powerful charms, and put so strong attractions of
easiness and pleasure into what we accustom ourselves to, that we cannot
forbear to do, or at least be easy in the omission of, actions, which
habitual practice has suited, and thereby recommends to us. Though this
be very visible, and every one's experience shows him he can do so; yet
it is a part in the conduct of men towards their happiness, neglected to
a degree, that it will be possibly entertained as a paradox, if it be
said, that men can MAKE things or actions more or less pleasing to
themselves; and thereby remedy that, to which one may justly impute a
great deal of their wandering. Fashion and the common opinion having
settled wrong notions, and education and custom ill habits, the just
values of things are misplaced, and the palates of men corrupted.
Pains should be taken to rectify these; and contrary habits change our
pleasures, and give a relish to that which is necessary or conducive to
our happiness. This every one must confess he can do; and when happiness
is lost, and misery overtakes him, he wil confess he did amiss in
neglecting it, and condemn himself for it; and I ask every one, whether
he has not often done so?
72. Preference of Vice to Virtue a manifest wrong Judgment.
I shall not now enlarge any further on the wrong judgments and neglect
of what is in their power, whereby men mislead themselves. This would
make a volume, and is not my business. But whatever false notions, or
shameful neglect of what is in their power, may put men out of their way
to happiness, and distract them, as we see, into so different courses
of life, this yet is certain, that morality established upon its true
foundations, cannot but determine the choice in any one that will but
consider: and he that will not be so far a rational creature as to
reflect seriously upon INFINITE happiness and misery, must needs condemn
himself as not making that use of his understanding he should. The
rewards and punishments of another life which the Almighty has
established, as the enforcements of his law, are of weight enough to
determine the choice against whatever pleasure or pain this life can
show, where the eternal state is considered but in its bare possibility
which nobody can make any doubt of. He that will allow exquisite and
endless happiness to be but the possible consequence of a good life
here, and the contrary state the possible reward of a bad one, must
own himself to judge very much amiss if he does not conclude,--That a
virtuous life, with the certain expectation of everlasting bliss, which
may come, is to be preferred to a vicious one, with the fear of that
dreadful state of misery, which it is very possible may overtake the
guilty; or, at best, the terrible uncertain hope of annihilation. This
is evidently so, though the virtuous life here had nothing but pain, and
the vicious continual pleasure: which yet is, for the most part, quite
otherwise, and wicked men have not much the odds to brag of, even in
their present possession; nay, all things rightly considered, have, I
think, even the worse part here. But when infinite happiness is put into
one scale, against infinite misery in the other; if the worst that comes
to the pious man, if he mistakes, be the best that the wicked can attain
to, if he be in the right, who can without madness run the venture?
Who in his wits would choose to come within a possibility of infinite
misery; which if he miss, there is yet nothing to be got by that hazard?
Whereas, on the other side, the sober man ventures nothing against
infinite happiness to be got, if his expectation comes not to pass. If
the good man be in the right, he is eternally happy; if he mistakes, he
is not miserable, he feels nothing. On the other side, if the wicked
man be in the right, he is not happy; if he mistakes, he is infinitely
miserable. Must it not be a most manifest wrong judgment that does not
presently see to which side, in this case, the preference is to
be given? I have forborne to mention anything of the certainty or
probability of a future state, designing here to show the wrong judgment
that any one must allow he makes, upon his own principles, laid how he
pleases, who prefers the short pleasures of a vicious life upon any
consideration, whilst he knows, and cannot but be certain, that a future
life is at least possible.
73. Recapitulation--Liberty of indifferency.
To conclude this inquiry into human liberty, which, as it stood before,
I myself from the beginning fearing, and a very judicious friend of
mine, since the publication, suspecting to have some mistake in it,
though he could not particularly show it me, I was put upon a stricter
review of this chapter. Wherein lighting upon a very easy and scarce
observable slip I had made, in putting one seemingly indifferent word
for another that discovery opened to me this present view, which here,
in this second edition, I submit to the learned world, and which, in
short, is this: LIBERTY is a power to act or not to act, according as
the mind directs. A power to direct the operative faculties to motion or
rest in particular instances is that which we cal the WILL. That which
in the train of our voluntary actions determines the wil to any change
of operation is SOME PRESENT UNEASINESS, which is, or at least is always
accompanied with that of DESIRE. Desire is always moved by evil, to fly
it: because a total freedom from pain always makes a necessary part
of our happiness: but every good, nay, every greater good, does not
constantly move desire, because it may not make, or may not be taken to
make, any necessary part of our happiness. For al that we desire, is
only to be happy. But, though this general desire of happiness operates
constantly and invariably, yet the satisfaction of any particular desire
CAN BE SUSPENDED from determining the will to any subservient action,
til we have maturely examined whether the particular apparent good
which we then desire makes a part of our real happiness, or be
consistent or inconsistent with it. The result of our judgment upon that
examination is what ultimately determines the man; who could not be FREE
if his will were determined by anything but his own desire, guided by
his own judgment.
74. Active and passive power, in motions and in thinking.
True notions concerning the nature and extent of LIBERTY are of so great
importance, that I hope I shall be pardoned this digression, which my
attempt to explain it has led me into. The ideas of will, volition,
liberty, and necessity, in this Chapter of Power, came naturally in
my way. In a former edition of this Treatise I gave an account of my
thoughts concerning them, according to the light I then had. And now, as
a lover of truth, and not a worshipper of my own doctrines, I own some
change of my opinion; which I think I have discovered ground for. In
what I first writ, I with an unbiassed indifferency followed truth,
whither I thought she led me. But neither being so vain as to fancy
infallibility, nor so disingenuous as to dissemble my mistakes for fear
of blemishing my reputation, I have, with the same sincere design for
truth only, not been ashamed to publish what a severer inquiry has
suggested. It is not impossible but that some may think my former
notions right; and some (as I have already found) these latter; and some
neither. I shall not at all wonder at this variety in men's opinions:
impartial deductions of reason in controverted points being so rare, and
exact ones in abstract notions not so very easy especially if of any
length. And, therefore, I should think myself not a little beholden to
any one, who would, upon these or any other grounds, fairly clear this
subject of LIBERTY from any difficulties that may yet remain.
75. Summary of our Original ideas.
And thus I have, in a short draught, given a view of OUR ORIGINAL IDEAS,
from whence all the rest are derived, and of which they are made up;
which, if I would consider as a philosopher, and examine on what causes
they depend, and of what they are made, I believe they al might be
reduced to these very few primary and original ones, viz. EXTENSION,
SOLIDITY, MOBILITY, or the power of being moved; which by our senses
we receive from body: PERCEPTIVITY, or the power of perception, or
thinking; MOTIVITY, or the power of moving: which by reflection we
receive from OUR MINDS.
I crave leave to make use of these two new words, to avoid the danger of
being mistaken in the use of those which are equivocal.
To which if we add EXISTENCE, DURATION, NUMBER, which belong both to the
one and the other, we have, perhaps, al the original ideas on which the
rest depend. For by these, I imagine, might be EXPLAINED the nature of
colours, sounds, tastes, smells, and ALL OTHER IDEAS WE HAVE, if we had
but faculties acute enough to perceive the severally modified extensions
and motions of these minute bodies, which produce those several
sensations in us. But my present purpose being only to inquire into the
knowledge the mind has of things, by those ideas and appearances which
God has fitted it to receive from them, and how the mind comes by that
knowledge; rather than into their causes or manner of Production, I
shall not, contrary to the design of this Essay, see myself to inquire
philosophically into the peculiar constitution of BODIES, and the
configuration of parts, whereby THEY have the power to produce in us the
ideas of their sensible qualities. I shall not enter any further into
that disquisition; it sufficing to my purpose to observe, that gold or
saffron has power to produce in us the idea of yel ow, and snow or milk
the idea of white, which we can only have by our sight without examining
the texture of the parts of those bodies or the particular figures or
motion of the particles which rebound from them, to cause in us that
particular sensation, though, when we go beyond the bare ideas in our
minds and would inquire into their causes, we cannot conceive anything
else to be in any sensible object, whereby it produces different ideas
in us, but the different bulk, figure, number, texture, and motion of
its insensible parts.
CHAPTER XXII.
OF MIXED MODES.
1. Mixed Modes, what.
Having treated of SIMPLE MODES in the foregoing chapters, and given
several instances of some of the most considerable of them, to show
what they are, and how we come by them; we are now in the next place to
consider those we cal MIXED MODES; such are the complex ideas we mark
by the names OBLIGATION, DRUNKENNESS, a LIE, &c.; which consisting of
several combinations of simple ideas of DIFFERENT kinds, I have called
mixed modes, to distinguish them from the more simple modes, which
consist only of simple ideas of the SAME kind. These mixed modes, being
also such combinations of simple ideas as are not looked upon to be
characteristical marks of any real beings that have a steady existence,
but scattered and independent ideas put together by the mind, are
thereby distinguished from the complex ideas of substances.
2. Made by the Mind.
That the mind, in respect of its simple ideas, is wholly passive, and
receives them all from the existence and operations of things, such as
sensation or reflection offers them, without being able to MAKE any one
idea, experience shows us. But if we attentively consider these ideas
I cal mixed modes, we are now speaking of, we shall find their origin
quite different. The mind often exercises an ACTIVE power in making
these several combinations. For, it being once furnished with simple
ideas, it can put them together in several compositions, and so make
variety of complex ideas, without examining whether they exist so
together in nature. And hence I think it is that these ideas are called
NOTIONS: as they had their original, and constant existence, more in the
thoughts of men, than in the reality of things; and to form such ideas,
it sufficed that the mind put the parts of them together, and that they
were consistent in the understanding without considering whether they
had any real being: though I do not deny but several of them might be
taken from observation, and the existence of several simple ideas so
combined, as they are put together in the understanding. For the man who
first framed the idea of HYPOCRISY, might have either taken it at first
from the observation of one who made show of good qualities which he had
not; or else have framed that idea in his mind without having any such
pattern to fashion it by. For it is evident that, in the beginning of
languages and societies of men, several of those complex ideas, which
were consequent to the constitutions established amongst them, must
needs have been in the minds of men before they existed anywhere else;
and that many names that stood for such complex ideas were in use, and
so those ideas framed, before the combinations they stood for ever
existed.
3. Sometimes got by the Explication of their Names.
Indeed, now that languages are made, and abound with words standing for
such combinations, an usual way of GETTING these complex ideas is, by
the explication of those terms that stand for them. For, consisting of a
company of simple ideas combined, they may, by words standing for those
simple ideas, be represented to the mind of one who understands those
words, though that complex combination of simple ideas were never
offered to his mind by the real existence of things. Thus a man may
come to have the idea of SACRILEGE or MURDER, by enumerating to him the
simple ideas which these words stand for; without ever seeing either of
them committed.
4. The Name ties the Parts of mixed Modes into one Idea.
Every mixed mode consisting of many distinct simple ideas, it seems
reasonable to inquire, Whence it has its unity; and how such a precise
multitude comes to make but one idea; since that combination does not
always exist together in nature? To which I answer, it is plain it has
its unity from an act of the mind, combining those several simple ideas
together, and considering them as one complex one, consisting of those
parts; and the mark of this union, or that which is looked on generally
to complete it, is one NAME given to that combination. For it is by
their names that men commonly regulate their account of their distinct
species of mixed modes, seldom al owing or considering any number of
simple ideas to make one complex one, but such collections as there be
names for. Thus, though the kil ing of an old man be as fit in nature
to be united into one complex idea, as the killing a man's father; yet,
there being no name standing precisely for the one, as there is the name
of PARRICIDE to mark the other, it is not taken for a particular complex
idea, nor a distinct species of actions from that of kil ing a young
man, or any other man.
5. The Cause of making mixed Modes.
If we should inquire a little further, to see what it is that occasions
men to make several combinations of simple ideas into distinct, and,
as it were, settled modes, and neglect others, which in the nature of
things themselves, have as much an aptness to be combined and make
distinct ideas, we shall find the reason of it to be the end of
language; which being to mark, or communicate men's thoughts to one
another with all the dispatch that may be, they usually make SUCH
collections of ideas into complex modes, and affix names to them, as
they have frequent use of in their way of living and conversation,
leaving others which they have but seldom an occasion to mention,
loose and without names that tie them together: they rather choosing
to enumerate (when they have need) such ideas as make them up, by the
particular names that stand for them, than to trouble their memories
by multiplying of complex ideas with names to them, which they seldom or
never have any occasion to make use of.
6. Why Words in one Language have none answering in another.
This shows us how it comes to pass that there are in every language many
particular words which cannot be rendered by any one single word of
another. For the several fashions, customs, and manners of one nation,
making several combinations of ideas familiar and necessary in one,
which another people have had never an occasion to make, or perhaps so
much as take notice of, names come of course to be annexed to them, to
avoid long periphrases in things of daily conversation; and so they
become so many distinct complex ideas in their minds. Thus ostrakismos
amongst the Greeks, and proscriptio amongst the Romans, were words which
other languages had no names that exactly answered; because they stood
for complex ideas which were not in the minds of the men of other
nations. Where there was no such custom, there was no notion of any such