PHAEDRUS: That is good news. But what do you PHAEDRUS: What error?
mean?
SOCRATES: That was a dreadful speech which SOCRATES: I mean to say that as I was about to you brought with you, and you made me utter cross the stream the usual sign was given to me,—
one as bad.
that sign which always forbids, but never bids, me to do anything which I am going to do; and I PHAEDRUS: How so?
thought that I heard a voice saying in my ear that I had been guilty of impiety, and that I must SOCRATES: It was foolish, I say,—to a certain ex-not go away until I had made an atonement. Now tent, impious; can anything be more dreadful?
I am a diviner, though not a very good one, but I have enough religion for my own use, as you PHAEDRUS: Nothing, if the speech was really might say of a bad writer—his writing is good such as you describe.
enough for him; and I am beginning to see that I was in error. O my friend, how prophetic is the SOCRATES: Well, and is not Eros the son of human soul! At the time I had a sort of misgiv-Aphrodite, and a god?
ing, and, like Ibycus, ‘I was troubled; I feared that I might be buying honour from men at the PHAEDRUS: So men say.
price of sinning against the gods.’ Now I recognize my error.
SOCRATES: But that was not acknowledged by Lysias in his speech, nor by you in that other 68
Phaedrus
speech which you by a charm drew from my lips.
For if love be, as he surely is, a divinity, he can-and when he had completed his poem, which is not be evil. Yet this was the error of both the called ‘the recantation,’immediately his sight speeches. There was also a simplicity about them returned to him. Now I will be wiser than either which was refreshing; having no truth or hon-Stesichorus or Homer, in that I am going to make esty in them, nevertheless they pretended to be my recantation for reviling love before I suffer; something, hoping to succeed in deceiving the and this I will attempt, not as before, veiled and manikins of earth and gain celebrity among ashamed, but with forehead bold and bare.
them. Wherefore I must have a purgation. And I bethink me of an ancient purgation of mytho-PHAEDRUS: Nothing could be more agreeable logical error which was devised, not by Homer, to me than to hear you say so.
for he never had the wit to discover why he was blind, but by Stesichorus, who was a philosopher SOCRATES: Only think, my good Phaedrus, what and knew the reason why; and therefore, when an utter want of delicacy was shown in the two he lost his eyes, for that was the penalty which discourses; I mean, in my own and in that which was inflicted upon him for reviling the lovely you recited out of the book. Would not any one Helen, he at once purged himself. And the pur-who was himself of a noble and gentle nature, gation was a recantation, which began thus,—
and who loved or ever had loved a nature like his own, when we tell of the petty causes of lov-
‘False is that word of mine—the truth is that ers’ jealousies, and of their exceeding animosi-thou didst not embark in ships, nor ever go to ties, and of the injuries which they do to their the walls of Tr o y ; ’
beloved, have imagined that our ideas of love 69
Plato
were taken from some haunt of sailors to which SOCRATES: You will be true to your nature in good manners were unknown—he would cer-that, and therefore I believe you.
tainly never have admitted the justice of our censure?
PHAEDRUS: Speak, and fear not.
PHAEDRUS: I dare say not, Socrates.
SOCRATES: But where is the fair youth whom I was addressing before, and who ought to listen SOCRATES: Therefore, because I blush at the now; lest, if he hear me not, he should accept a thought of this person, and also because I am non-lover before he knows what he is doing?
afraid of Love himself, I desire to wash the brine out of my ears with water from the spring; and I PHAEDRUS: He is close at hand, and always at would counsel Lysias not to delay, but to write your service.
another discourse, which shall prove that
‘ceteris paribus’ the lover ought to be accepted SOCRATES: Know then, fair youth, that the rather than the non-lover.
former discourse was the word of Phaedrus, the son of Vain Man, who dwells in the city of PHAEDRUS: Be assured that he shall. You shall Myrrhina (Myrrhinusius). And this which I am speak the praises of the lover, and Lysias shall about to utter is the recantation of Stesichorus be compelled by me to write another discourse the son of Godly Man (Euphemus), who comes on the same theme.
from the town of Desire (Himera), and is to the following effect: ‘I told a lie when I said’ that 70
Phaedrus
the beloved ought to accept the non-lover when them both by the same name, if they had deemed he might have the lover, because the one is sane, madness to be a disgrace or dishonour;—they and the other mad. It might be so if madness must have thought that there was an inspired were simply an evil; but there is also a madness madness which was a noble thing; for the two which is a divine gift, and the source of the words, mantike and manike, are really the same, chiefest blessings granted to men. For prophecy and the letter tau is only a modern and tasteless is a madness, and the prophetess at Delphi and insertion. And this is confirmed by the name the priestesses at Dodona when out of their which was given by them to the rational investi-senses have conferred great benefits on Hellas, gation of futurity, whether made by the help of both in public and private life, but when in their birds or of other signs—this, for as much as it is senses few or none. And I might also tell you an art which supplies from the reasoning fac-how the Sibyl and other inspired persons have ulty mind (nous) and information (istoria) to given to many an one many an intimation of the human thought (oiesis) they originally termed future which has saved them from falling. But it oionoistike, but the word has been lately altered would be tedious to speak of what every one and made sonorous by the modern introduction knows.
of the letter Omega (oionoistike and oionistike), There will be more reason in appealing to the and in proportion as prophecy (mantike) is more ancient inventors of names (compare Cratylus), perfect and august than augury, both in name who would never have connected prophecy and fact, in the same proportion, as the ancients (mantike) which foretells the future and is the testify, is madness superior to a sane mind noblest of arts, with madness (manike), or called (sophrosune) for the one is only of human, but 71
Plato
the other of divine origin. Again, where plagues the sane man disappears and is nowhere when and mightiest woes have bred in certain fami-he enters into rivalry with the madman.
lies, owing to some ancient blood-guiltiness, I might tell of many other noble deeds which there madness has entered with holy prayers and have sprung from inspired madness. And there-rites, and by inspired utterances found a way of fore, let no one frighten or flutter us by saying deliverance for those who are in need; and he that the temperate friend is to be chosen rather who has part in this gift, and is truly possessed than the inspired, but let him further show that and duly out of his mind, is by the use of purifi-love is not sent by the gods for any good to lover cations and mysteries made whole and exempt or beloved; if he can do so we will allow him to from evil, future as well as present, and has a carry off the palm. And we, on our part, will prove release from the calamity which was afflicting in answer to him that the madness of love is the him. The third kind is the madness of those who greatest of heaven’s blessings, and the proof are possessed by the Muses; which taking hold shall be one which the wise will receive, and the of a delicate and virgin soul, and there inspiring witling disbelieve. But first of all, let us view the frenzy, awakens lyrical and all other numbers; affections and actions of the soul divine and hu-with these adorning the myriad actions of an-man, and try to ascertain the truth about them.
cient heroes for the instruction of posterity. But The beginning of our proof is as follows:—
he who, having no touch of the Muses’ mad-
(Translated by Cic. Tus. Quaest.) The soul ness in his soul, comes to the door and thinks through all her being is immortal, for that which that he will get into the temple by the help of is ever in motion is immortal; but that which art—he, I say, and his poetry are not admitted; moves another and is moved by another, in ceas-72
Phaedrus
ing to move ceases also to live. Only the self-soulless; but that which is moved from within moving, never leaving self, never ceases to move, has a soul, for such is the nature of the soul. But and is the fountain and beginning of motion to if this be true, must not the soul be the self-mov-all that moves besides. Now, the beginning is ing, and therefore of necessity unbegotten and unbegotten, for that which is begotten has a immortal? Enough of the soul’s immortality.
beginning; but the beginning is begotten of noth-Of the nature of the soul, though her true form ing, for if it were begotten of something, then be ever a theme of large and more than mortal the begotten would not come from a beginning.
discourse, let me speak briefly, and in a figure.
But if unbegotten, it must also be indestructible; And let the figure be composite—a pair of winged for if beginning were destroyed, there could be horses and a charioteer. Now the winged horses no beginning out of anything, nor anything out and the charioteers of the gods are all of them of a beginning; and all things must have a be-noble and of noble descent, but those of other ginning. And therefore the self-moving is the races are mixed; the human charioteer drives beginning of motion; and this can neither be his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of destroyed nor begotten, else the whole heavens noble breed, and the other is ignoble and of ig-and all creation would collapse and stand still, noble breed; and the driving of them of neces-and never again have motion or birth. But if the sity gives a great deal of trouble to him. I will self-moving is proved to be immortal, he who endeavour to explain to you in what way the affirms that self-motion is the very idea and es-mortal differs from the immortal creature. The sence of the soul will not be put to confusion.
soul in her totality has the care of inanimate For the body which is moved from without is being everywhere, and traverses the whole 73
Plato
heaven in divers forms appearing—when perfect is the habitation of the gods. The divine is beauty, and fully winged she soars upward, and orders wisdom, goodness, and the like; and by these the whole world; whereas the imperfect soul, the wing of the soul is nourished, and grows losing her wings and drooping in her flight at apace; but when fed upon evil and foulness and last settles on the solid ground—there, finding a the opposite of good, wastes and falls away. Zeus, home, she receives an earthly frame which ap-the mighty lord, holding the reins of a winged pears to be self-moved, but is really moved by chariot, leads the way in heaven, ordering all her power; and this composition of soul and body and taking care of all; and there follows him the is called a living and mortal creature. For im-array of gods and demi-gods, marshalled in mortal no such union can be reasonably believed eleven bands; Hestia alone abides at home in the to be; although fancy, not having seen nor surely house of heaven; of the rest they who are reck-known the nature of God, may imagine an im-oned among the princely twelve march in their mortal creature having both a body and also a appointed order. They see many blessed sights soul which are united throughout all time. Let in the inner heaven, and there are many ways that, however, be as God wills, and be spoken of to and fro, along which the blessed gods are pass-acceptably to him. And now let us ask the rea-ing, every one doing his own work; he may fol-son why the soul loses her wings!
low who will and can, for jealousy has no place The wing is the corporeal element which is in the celestial choir. But when they go to ban-most akin to the divine, and which by nature quet and festival, then they move up the steep tends to soar aloft and carry that which gravi-to the top of the vault of heaven. The chariots of tates downwards into the upper region, which the gods in even poise, obeying the rein, glide 74
Phaedrus
rapidly; but the others labour, for the vicious replenished and made glad, until the revolution steed goes heavily, weighing down the charioteer of the worlds brings her round again to the same to the earth when his steed has not been thor-place. In the revolution she beholds justice, and oughly trained:—and this is the hour of agony temperance, and knowledge absolute, not in the and extremest conflict for the soul. For the im-form of generation or of relation, which men call mortals, when they are at the end of their course, existence, but knowledge absolute in existence go forth and stand upon the outside of heaven, absolute; and beholding the other true existences and the revolution of the spheres carries them in like manner, and feasting upon them, she round, and they behold the things beyond. But passes down into the interior of the heavens and of the heaven which is above the heavens, what returns home; and there the charioteer putting earthly poet ever did or ever will sing worthily?
up his horses at the stall, gives them ambrosia It is such as I will describe; for I must dare to to eat and nectar to drink.
speak the truth, when truth is my theme. There Such is the life of the gods; but of other souls, abides the very being with which true knowl-that which follows God best and is likest to him edge is concerned; the colourless, formless, in-lifts the head of the charioteer into the outer tangible essence, visible only to mind, the pilot world, and is carried round in the revolution, of the soul. The divine intelligence, being nur-troubled indeed by the steeds, and with difficulty tured upon mind and pure knowledge, and the beholding true being; while another only rises intelligence of every soul which is capable of re-and falls, and sees, and again fails to see by rea-ceiving the food proper to it, rejoices at behold-son of the unruliness of the steeds. The rest of ing reality, and once more gazing upon truth, is the souls are also longing after the upper world 75
Plato
and they all follow, but not being strong enough her wings fall from her and she drops to the they are carried round below the surface, plung-ground, then the law ordains that this soul shall ing, treading on one another, each striving to be at her first birth pass, not into any other ani-first; and there is confusion and perspiration and mal, but only into man; and the soul which has the extremity of effort; and many of them are seen most of truth shall come to the birth as a lamed or have their wings broken through the philosopher, or artist, or some musical and lov-ill-driving of the charioteers; and all of them af-ing nature; that which has seen truth in the secter a fruitless toil, not having attained to the ond degree shall be some righteous king or war-mysteries of true being, go away, and feed upon rior chief; the soul which is of the third class shall opinion. The reason why the souls exhibit this be a politician, or economist, or trader; the fourth exceeding eagerness to behold the plain of truth shall be a lover of gymnastic toils, or a physi-is that pasturage is found there, which is suited cian; the fifth shall lead the life of a prophet or to the highest part of the soul; and the wing on hierophant; to the sixth the character of poet or which the soul soars is nourished with this. And some other imitative artist will be assigned; to there is a law of Destiny, that the soul which at-the seventh the life of an artisan or husband-tains any vision of truth in company with a god man; to the eighth that of a sophist or dema-is preserved from harm until the next period, gogue; to the ninth that of a tyrant—all these and if attaining always is always unharmed. But are states of probation, in which he who does when she is unable to follow, and fails to behold righteously improves, and he who does the truth, and through some ill-hap sinks beneath unrighteously, deteriorates his lot.
the double load of forgetfulness and vice, and Ten thousand years must elapse before the soul 76
Phaedrus
of each one can return to the place from whence thousand years the good souls and also the evil she came, for she cannot grow her wings in less; souls both come to draw lots and choose their only the soul of a philosopher, guileless and true, second life, and they may take any which they or the soul of a lover, who is not devoid of phi-please. The soul of a man may pass into the life losophy, may acquire wings in the third of the of a beast, or from the beast return again into recurring periods of a thousand years; he is dis-the man. But the soul which has never seen the tinguished from the ordinary good man who truth will not pass into the human form. For a gains wings in three thousand years:—and they man must have intelligence of universals, and who choose this life three times in succession be able to proceed from the many particulars of have wings given them, and go away at the end sense to one conception of reason;—this is the of three thousand years. But the others (The recollection of those things which our soul once philosopher alone is not subject to judgment saw while following God—when regardless of that (krisis), for he has never lost the vision of truth.) which we now call being she raised her head up receive judgment when they have completed towards the true being. And therefore the mind their first life, and after the judgment they go, of the philosopher alone has wings; and this is some of them to the houses of correction which just, for he is always, according to the measure are under the earth, and are punished; others to of his abilities, clinging in recollection to those some place in heaven whither they are lightly things in which God abides, and in beholding borne by justice, and there they live in a man-which He is what He is. And he who employs ner worthy of the life which they led here when aright these memories is ever being initiated into in the form of men. And at the end of the first perfect mysteries and alone becomes truly per-77
Plato
fect. But, as he forgets earthly interests and is a short time only, or they may have been unfor-rapt in the divine, the vulgar deem him mad, tunate in their earthly lot, and, having had their and rebuke him; they do not see that he is in-hearts turned to unrighteousness through some spired.
corrupting influence, they may have lost the Thus far I have been speaking of the fourth memory of the holy things which once they saw.
and last kind of madness, which is imputed to Few only retain an adequate remembrance of him who, when he sees the beauty of earth, is them; and they, when they behold here any im-transported with the recollection of the true age of that other world, are rapt in amazement; beauty; he would like to fly away, but he cannot; but they are ignorant of what this rapture means, he is like a bird fluttering and looking upward because they do not clearly perceive. For there and careless of the world below; and he is thereis no light of justice or temperance or any of the fore thought to be mad. And I have shown this higher ideas which are precious to souls in the of all inspirations to be the noblest and highest earthly copies of them: they are seen through a and the offspring of the highest to him who has glass dimly; and there are few who, going to the or shares in it, and that he who loves the beauti-images, behold in them the realities, and these ful is called a lover because he partakes of it.
only with difficulty. There was a time when with For, as has been already said, every soul of man the rest of the happy band they saw beauty shin-has in the way of nature beheld true being; this ing in brightness,—we philosophers following in was the condition of her passing into the form the train of Zeus, others in company with other of man. But all souls do not easily recall the things gods; and then we beheld the beatific vision and of the other world; they may have seen them for were initiated into a mystery which may be truly 78
Phaedrus
called most blessed, celebrated by us in our state most palpable to sight. Now he who is not newly of innocence, before we had any experience of initiated or who has become corrupted, does not evils to come, when we were admitted to the easily rise out of this world to the sight of true sight of apparitions innocent and simple and beauty in the other; he looks only at her earthly calm and happy, which we beheld shining in pure namesake, and instead of being awed at the sight light, pure ourselves and not yet enshrined in of her, he is given over to pleasure, and like a that living tomb which we carry about, now that brutish beast he rushes on to enjoy and beget; we are imprisoned in the body, like an oyster in he consorts with wantonness, and is not afraid his shell. Let me linger over the memory of scenes or ashamed of pursuing pleasure in violation of which have passed away.
nature. But he whose initiation is recent, and But of beauty, I repeat again that we saw her who has been the spectator of many glories in there shining in company with the celestial the other world, is amazed when he sees any forms; and coming to earth we find her here too, one having a godlike face or form, which is the shining in clearness through the clearest aper-expression of divine beauty; and at first a shud-ture of sense. For sight is the most piercing of der runs through him, and again the old awe our bodily senses; though not by that is wisdom steals over him; then looking upon the face of seen; her loveliness would have been transport-his beloved as of a god he reverences him, and if ing if there had been a visible image of her, and he were not afraid of being thought a downright the other ideas, if they had visible counterparts, madman, he would sacrifice to his beloved as to would be equally lovely. But this is the privilege the image of a god; then while he gazes on him of beauty, that being the loveliest she is also the there is a sort of reaction, and the shudder passes 79
Plato
into an unusual heat and perspiration; for, as he she ceases from her pain with joy. But when she receives the effluence of beauty through the eyes, is parted from her beloved and her moisture fails, the wing moistens and he warms. And as he then the orifices of the passage out of which the warms, the parts out of which the wing grew, wing shoots dry up and close, and intercept the and which had been hitherto closed and rigid, germ of the wing; which, being shut up with the and had prevented the wing from shooting forth, emotion, throbbing as with the pulsations of an are melted, and as nourishment streams upon artery, pricks the aperture which is nearest, un-him, the lower end of the wing begins to swell til at length the entire soul is pierced and mad-and grow from the root upwards; and the growth dened and pained, and at the recollection of extends under the whole soul—for once the whole beauty is again delighted. And from both of them was winged. During this process the whole soul together the soul is oppressed at the strange-is all in a state of ebullition and effervescence,—
ness of her condition, and is in a great strait and which may be compared to the irritation and excitement, and in her madness can neither sleep uneasiness in the gums at the time of cutting by night nor abide in her place by day. And wher-teeth,—bubbles up, and has a feeling of uneasi-ever she thinks that she will behold the beauti-ness and tickling; but when in like manner the ful one, thither in her desire she runs. And when soul is beginning to grow wings, the beauty of she has seen him, and bathed herself in the wa-the beloved meets her eye and she receives the ters of beauty, her constraint is loosened, and sensible warm motion of particles which flow she is refreshed, and has no more pangs and towards her, therefore called emotion (imeros), pains; and this is the sweetest of all pleasures at and is refreshed and warmed by them, and then the time, and is the reason why the soul of the 80
Phaedrus
lover will never forsake his beautiful one, whom Because the growing of wings (Or, reading he esteems above all; he has forgotten mother pterothoiton, ‘the movement of wings.’) is a and brethren and companions, and he thinks necessity to him.’
nothing of the neglect and loss of his property; You may believe this, but not unless you like.
the rules and proprieties of life, on which he for-At any rate the loves of lovers and their causes merly prided himself, he now despises, and is are such as I have described.
ready to sleep like a servant, wherever he is al-Now the lover who is taken to be the atten-lowed, as near as he can to his desired one, who dant of Zeus is better able to bear the winged is the object of his worship, and the physician god, and can endure a heavier burden; but the who can alone assuage the greatness of his pain.
attendants and companions of Ares, when un-And this state, my dear imaginary youth to der the influence of love, if they fancy that they whom I am talking, is by men called love, and have been at all wronged, are ready to kill and among the gods has a name at which you, in put an end to themselves and their beloved. And your simplicity, may be inclined to mock; there he who follows in the train of any other god, are two lines in the apocryphal writings of Homer while he is unspoiled and the impression lasts, in which the name occurs. One of them is rather honours and imitates him, as far as he is able; outrageous, and not altogether metrical. They and after the manner of his God he behaves in are as follows:
his intercourse with his beloved and with the rest of the world during the first period of his
‘Mortals call him fluttering love, earthly existence. Every one chooses his love But the immortals call him winged one, from the ranks of beauty according to his char-81
Plato
acter, and this he makes his god, and fashions their own fountain upon him, wanting to make and adorns as a sort of image which he is to fall him as like as possible to their own god. But those down and worship. The followers of Zeus desire who are the followers of Here seek a royal love, that their beloved should have a soul like him; and when they have found him they do just the and therefore they seek out some one of a philo-same with him; and in like manner the follow-sophical and imperial nature, and when they ers of Apollo, and of every other god walking in have found him and loved him, they do all they the ways of their god, seek a love who is to be can to confirm such a nature in him, and if they made like him whom they serve, and when they have no experience of such a disposition hith-have found him, they themselves imitate their erto, they learn of any one who can teach them, god, and persuade their love to do the same, and and themselves follow in the same way. And they educate him into the manner and nature of the have the less difficulty in finding the nature of god as far as they each can; for no feelings of their own god in themselves, because they have envy or jealousy are entertained by them to-been compelled to gaze intensely on him; their wards their beloved, but they do their utmost to recollection clings to him, and they become pos-create in him the greatest likeness of themselves sessed of him, and receive from him their char-and of the god whom they honour. Thus fair and acter and disposition, so far as man can partici-blissful to the beloved is the desire of the inspired pate in God. The qualities of their god they at-lover, and the initiation of which I speak into the tribute to the beloved, wherefore they love him mysteries of true love, if he be captured by the all the more, and if, like the Bacchic Nymphs, lover and their purpose is effected. Now the be-they draw inspiration from Zeus, they pour out loved is taken captive in the following manner:—