Yi Sang-bo

Gasa

Gasa is a verse form with the rhythmic unit of four syllables, while it sets no limitation the length. Classical verse of Korea consists of folk songs of antiquity, hyangga of the Silla dynasty, gyeonggi-chega and folk songs of the Koryeo dynasty, and gasa and sijo which, originating toward the end of the Koryeo dynasty, came into bloom in the Yi dynasty. All these verses were sung, orally transmitted, or committed to letters.

Gasa was originally sung; but as it became longer it began to be recited. Gasa originated toward the end of the Koryeo dynasty. It came into being through the influence of both Chinese and Korean verses—Yeuh-Fu and Pien wen of China and the folk songs and gyeonggi-chega of the Koryeo dynasty. Sowangga (Song of Paradise) and two other Buddhist songs by Monk Naong (1320-1376) are pioneering works. These Buddhist works have apparently changed a great deal through the process of oral transmission. They had been widely disseminated until they were preserved in written form following the invention of the Korean alphabet.

Sowangga

Little as I am, I am the son of man.

Since nothing is certain in this world, all is vanity.

This body my parents gave me, after death it would be of no use.

After a brief reflection, I give up the worldly things;

Bidding goodbye to my parents, I visit a noted mountain

With a gourd and quilted clothes, carrying a goosefoot stick in my hand.

I hope to meet a wise monk, by whom I wish to be enlightened.

Poring over all the scriptures

I shall subdue the six enemies.[2] Striding the horse of the void[3]

And the sword defying evils[4] in my hand, I enter the Five-Faculty Mountain.[5]

Among mountains folds upon folds, the Four-Phase Mountain[6] towers.

 

After a little reflection, I make up my mind

And think of the vast skies. Mountains are high, streams flow softly;

The wind blows cool, flowers are bright, the pines and bamboos tall and exuberant.

Crossing the sea of Avatamska I enter Paradise,

A realm wonderful to behold, seven-jewelled silk land

Encircled by seven-jewelled nets.

At a lotus dais of nine orders, prayers are heard;

Blue cranes and white cranes, parrots and peacocks,

Golden phoenixes and blue phoenixes—all deep in prayers.

A cool breeze rises to carry the prayers to my ear.

Oh, woe is us! Born in this mortal world,

What shall we do but pray? Save us, merciful Buddha!

These passages are from the beginning and the conclusion of Sowangga. Although the purpose of this song is chiefly to propagate Buddhism, it shows well the formative process of the gasa style. While studying in China, Monk Naong encountered Pien wen, an oral literature based on the Buddhist scriptures. Under the influence of Pien wen he composed his Buddhist songs.

It was in the Yi dynasty a great deal of gasa was written to outnumber the other classical verses. The first half of the fifteenth century was not productive; but in 1470 Chung Kuk-in (1401-1481) composed Sangchun-gok (Enjoying Spring) which demonstrates development of gasa literature. It deals with the en-joyment and praise of nature and delineates the elegant life of the poet who in his old age retired to the country. He thus initiated the tradition of seclusion in nature and influenced Song Sun (1493-1582) who composed in 1533 Myunangjong-ga (Song of Myunang Pavilion). Yi In-hyung (1436-1504) composed in 1475 Maichangwol-ga (Song of the Moon at an Apricot Window), which deals with the discovery of natural beauty. Cho Ui (1454-1503) composed in exile at Sunchon, the Southern Jeonra Province, Mpnpun-ga (Song of Distress) depicting the pains of his banishment. Chung Kuk-in and Cho Ui are the most important figures of fifteenth century gasa literature.

In the sixteenth century Song Sun of Honam (Jeonra) province and Yi Hwang of Yeongnam (Gyeongsang) Province together formed two great mountain ranges, bringing gasa to its zenith. While Song Sun and his followers dealt with a leisurely lie in nature, Yi Hwang and his followers wrote a gasa of didactic nature.

Song Sun who wrote Myunangjong-ga inherited the tradition of Sangchun-gok. He ably expressed love for nature and proved to be an influence on Chung Chol and others. A little earlier, Yi So (1482-?) exiled to Jeonra Province composed Nakchi-ga singing of secluded life in natue; and Song In (1517-1584) composed Suwoljong-ga, depicting an elegant life at a pavilion.

On the occasion of a Japanese invasion in 1555 Yang Sa-eon composed Namjong-ga (Song of Expedition to the South). It is a major work of war literature followed by Pak In-no’s Taipyung-sa (Song of Peace Time) and Sunsang-tan (On a Warship). In the same year Paek Kwang-hyon (1522-1566) was appointed a high official to the Pyeongan Province; his observation of the scenery of the province resulted in Gwanseo-byeolgok. As the first travel gasa it exerted a great influence on Gwandong-byeolgok by Chung Chol written twenty-five years later. And some twenty years before the Imjin Japanese Invasion, Huh Kang (1520-1592) wrote Seoho-byeolgok, which deals with boating on the Han River and the beauty of the surrounding scenery. During the Imjin War, Yi Hyun (1540-1618) was appointed to Anju, the Northern Pyeongan Province; at the request of the local people he wrote Paiksangnu-byeolgok in the tradition of Gwanseo-byeolgok. It depicted the scenery of Chungcheon River along with the good administration and the peaceful life of the region.

Chung Chol (1536-1594) joined at this stage and became the peak of the sixteenth century Honam circle. He wrote Sungsan-byeolgok emulating Myunangjong-ga; and modelling after Gwanseo-byeolgok he wrote Gwandong-byeolgok. In these works of a great skill he achieved perfect expression. He wrote further Samiin-gok (Song of Longing) and A Se to Samiin-gok in the tradition of Cho Ui’s Manpun-ga. The two works superbly express the loyalty of a retainer to his master.

The main stream of gasa before the Imjin War was, as we have described, chiefly by scholars of the Honam Province who were rich in lyricism.

In contrast, Yi Hwang (1501-1570) and his followers  the Yeongnam Province produced didactic works inculcating Confucianism. Hwangsan-byeolgok, Dodeok-ga (Song of Morals), Hyowoo-ga (Song of Filial Piety and Friendship) and others are attributed to him. These works invariably praise and advocate the learning of Confucius and Mencius. Today, many works of moral nature are attributed to him without sufficient grounds. It speaks of his great influence in this area. Yi Yi (1536-1584) wrote a lengthy Chakyung-byeolgok in order to edify the people of Gyeonggi and Hwanghai Provinces. Anbin-ga (Song of Honest Poverty) and Nakchiga (Song of Contentment) are attributed to him. These two masters led many including Cho Sik (1501-1572) in advocating and practising Confucianism.

On the other hand, the poetess Huh Nansolhon (1563-1589) wrote Kyuwon-ga (Song of a Grieving Lady) and Bongseonwha-ga (Song of the Balsam). Expressing fine sentiments, they began the tradition of gyubang-Gasa, which depicts women’s life. In the same period Saint Seosan (1520-1604) wrote a Buddhist gasa, Hweshim-gok (Song of Conversion). Widely circulated, it helped to enlighten the people.

With the beginning of the seventeenth century following the end of the Imjin War, gasa flourished further with the emergence of writers from various walks of life. Huh Jon’s Gogong-ga (Song of the Employed) and Gogongdapjuin-ga (Song of the Employed in Reply to the Master) by Yi Won-ik (1547-1634) match together, both dealing with the ser-vice to the sovereign and good administration. Cha Chon-no (1556-1615) composed Gangchon-byeolgok,” which describes the peaceful life of a village; and Im Yu-hu (1601-1673) expressed in Mokdong-ga (Song of a Shepherd) the distress of living in a troubled world. Ko Ung-sop (1531-1606) wrote Dosan-ga retreating to a mountain village during the Imjin War.

Toward the end of the Imjin War, Pak In-no (1561-1642) wrote Taipyung-sa (Song of Peace Time) in order to comfort his soldiers; and in Sun-sangtan (On a Warship) he again dealt with the war. Sache-gok (Song of Sache Village) depicted the beautiful scenery of the village along with tribute to the loyalty and filial piety of his friend who had retired there. Especially, Nuhang-sa (On a Modest Life) is an excellent work; through a realistic technique and dramatic dialogue it reflects calm wisdom in the face of poverty. Pak also wrote eight other gasa, including Doknakdang, which pays tribute to the memory of Yi On-hyo, a great moralist. It also depicts the scenery around doknakdang, the hermitage of the departed.

Choi Hyun (1563-1640) described in Myeungwol-eum (Reciting in the Moonlight) volunteer soldiers fighting the Japanese during the Imjin War. Paik Su-huai (1574-1642), captured by the Japanese and taken to Japan, wrote about the experience in two gasa. Ahn In-su also wrote a gasa which is informative about the Korean-Japanese relations of the period.

Cho U-in (1561-1625) wrote Maiho-byeolgok, nature poetry in imitation of Sungsan-byeolgok by Chung Chol. In Chado-sa (Sorrowing Upon Myself) he expressed his loyalty to the sovereign and grief over the confused state of the country due to villainous retainers. In terms of diction it follows very closely Chung Chol’s Samiin-gok. Also writing A Sequel to Gwandong-byeolgok, he fancied himself to be the successor of Chung Chol. Appointed to Gyeongsang, Hamgyeong Province, he wrote Chulsai-gok, (Going to a Frontier) which depicted scenes and manners of the district. Chai Duk-ui expressed in Bongsan-gok patriotic sentiments and faith in the healing power of nature on the occasion of Ching’s Invasion. Shin Kyai-yong (1577-1699) in Wolganghon-simyuk-gyeongga (Sixteen Views at the Moonlight Verandah) wrote about a quiet life in nature. Monk Dokweng (1616-1684) also wrote about detachment from worldly affairs in three gasa.

A realistic trend began to be established in the eighteenth century; and literature depicting the realities of life emerged in addition to the traditional mode of signing the beauties of nature.

Exiled to the Jeju Isle, Kim Cheon-taik (1670-1717) composed Byeol-samiin-gok in imitation of Chung Chol. Gapmin-ga composed by the people of Hamgyeong Province was about their sufferings due to extortion. Hong Kai-yong (1687-1705) wrote at the young age of eighteen Huiseol-ga (Joyful Snow), an excellent work of refined and florid style. Nagun-byeolgok by Nam Do-jin (1674-1735) celebrated the joyful life of retirement in a mountain.

Pak Soon-wu (1686-1759) is a notable figure of this period. Born Yeongam, the Southern Jeonra Province, he enjoyed a high literary fame in the area. In 1739 he toured in the Diamond Mt. region; his travel gasa, Geumgang-byeolgok, exerted an influence upon others, Pak Yi-hwa (1739-1783), his grandson, wrote Nanghoshin-sa, in which along with praise of the beauties of Yeongam he depicted the history, people, and manners of the place. It helped in enlightening the people of the region. He also wrote Mango-ga which deals with the great figures and incidents of China.

In the latter half of the eighteenth century Chung Chi-op(1693-1768) wrote Gyukmong-ga, a didactic work about learning; and Yi Chin-yu wrote a gasa in imitation of Chung Chol. In Mooho-ga, Kang Ung-hwan (1735-1795) who had passed the high military service examination, expressed his military ethos and grief at the frustration of his hopes. Sun-jong-ga was composed and dedicated to him by the people of a region which he governed with benevolence. Gilmong-ga (Song of an Auspicious Dream) by Han Sok-chi (1709-?) was about the philosophy of Mencius, with which the author hoped to improve the world.

In 1764 Kim In-gyum wrote Ilbon-jangyu-ga (Grand Tour in Japan)—a masterpiece of travel gasa depicting the culture and manners of Japan. Wui Se-bo (1669-1707) composed Geumdang-byeolgok, which in imitation of Chung Chol depicted the beautiful scenery of an island in Jeonra Province. No Myong-son (1707-1775) wrote Chunpung-ga, another gasa of scenery. Yi Kwang-sa (1705-1777) and Yi Yong were also in the same tradition.

Kwon Sam-duk and Yi Pang-ik wrote about new subjects such as weaving on a loom and drifting in the sea. Ahn Jo-won wrote in his exile a series of gasa which depicted his longing and suffering. Exile gasa, beginning with Cho Ui, reached its climax in Ahn Jo-won passing through Chung Chol, Kim Cheon-taik, Yi Chin-yu and others. On the other hand, Chiyong through a series of gasa tried to inculcate the ideas of Buddhism.

The nineteenth century was the cradle of modern Korean culture when the realistic trend of the previous century reached its height and the science of the West began to be introduced. In such atmosphere, the common people as well as women were active in literature.

Yi Ki-gyung (1756-1819) while in exile wrote two gasa in defence of Confucianism against Catholicism. Yi Gung-ik wrote Jukchang-gok (Song at the Bamboo Window); and Cho Sung-shin, Gaiam-ga and Dosan-byeolgok. Mun Do-gap wrote Gumnung-byeolgok in praise of the good government of the magistrate of Kimhai, the Southern Gyeongsang Province, thus inheriting the tradition of Yeongnam-ga by Pak In-no. In 1819 Yi Hui-yong wrote a gasa depicting a court ceremonial. Yu Yong-mu wrote about manners and morality. Yi Sang-kai (1758-1822), on the other hand, wrote about joyful life in nature and a delightful gathering of relatives.

Kim Kyung-hun (1815-1880) wrote didactic songs. Chung Hak-yu (1787-1859) wrote Nongga-wolryeong-ga, a masterpiece depicting the seasons and life of a rural community. In 1853 Kim Chin-hyung wrote about his exile in Myeongcheon, the Hamgyeong Province. Min Ju-hyon (1808-1882) and Kwon Kwang-bom (1871-1931) wrote respectively about Chongju, Jeonra Province and Yongchom, Hwanghai Province. Cho U-gak wrote about the Man-chu Invasion of Korea in 1636. Song Chan-gyu and Kim Un-hu wrote about local life.

In 1866 Hong Sun-hak (1842-?) wrote Yeonhaing-ga (Travelling to Peiking), a masterpiece comparable to Ilbon-jangyu-ga by Kim In-gyum. Hak Cho and Kyogyocha dealt with the climate and topography of Korea. Hwang Ip and Nulbong wrote about morality more lengthily than their predecessors. Hanyang-ga by Hansan-kosa delinated in great detail the cultural features of Hanyang (now Seoul) toward the end of the Yi dynasty.

Also, hundreds of gasa by women were written in Gyeongsang and Gyeonggi Provinces. They were didactic in spirit. Kim Taipi (Queen Consort of the King Sung Jong) wrote Hunmin-ga and Puin-hunmin-ga, songs of admonition to the people. With the advent of Cheondo-gyo, a native religion, Choi Je-oo (1824-1864) wrote a series of gasa to propagate its doctrines.

In the twentieth century gasa has been written in both traditional and new ways. New subjects and themes were attempted. Dai-ilbon-yuram-ga (Travel in Great Japan) published in 1902 reflected political circumstances of the period; and Yi Hwa-sung (1865-1946) inherited the traditional gasa in Dosan-gok. Most remarkable of all was Songun-dang Choi (1855-1939) who wrote as many as 50 gasa. He devoted himself to the educational work in Geum-chon, Gyeongsang Province and left such works as Blue Pines and White Snow, which show modern sensibility. Christian subjects were attempted by Yi Chong-ok, Chung Yak-chon and Yi Sol; the great range of their Christian subjects is a witness to the establishment of Catholicism in Korea. Many works were written also about Buddhism and Donghak, a native religon. Kim Chu-hui wrote more than 60 gasa about the latter.

The history of gasa has not come to an end. Across the country many are still writing it. Cho Ai-yong, a poetess, published an anthology of gasa; and Kwon Byong-sok wrote a lengthy work about the history of Korea. Still, gasa is overwhelmed by the waves of modern literature.

In short, gasa which came into being with monks and nobles, gradually spread to the common people and women; and it dealt with variety of subjects, including teaching of Confucianism, Buddhism, Catholicism and Cheondo-gyo. For 500 years it developed in close relationship with the life of Koreans. To examine its various contents, gasa may be divided under the following headings:

(1) Retirement gasa

Retirement Gasa is most frequent in the first half of the Yi dynasty. It has to do with a man who leaving the official world enjoys his declining years in nature. Troubled by the waves of officialdom, or weary of secular honor and wealth in his old age, he seeks seclusion in nature and spends a leisurely life.

Sangchun-gok by Chung Kuk-in (1401-1481) is the first retirement Gasa. It was followed by works of Yi In-hyung, Yi So, Song Sun, Yi Hwang, Chung Chol and Huh Kang.

In the latter half of the Yi dynasty following the end of Imjin War, the same Gasa tradition continued in the works of Cha Chon-no, Pak In-no, Cho U-in, Shin Kyai-yong, Nam Do-jin, Im Yu-hu, Chai Duk-ui and Monk Dokweng.

Retirement Gasa have in common an escape from social world to the life of seclusion in nature and a descriptive style, for description of nature as life en-vironment is a predominant element. The speaker in retirement Gasa is also unfailing in his devotion to his king; even in retirement he is moved to tears at the thought of the royal benevolence. The joys of music and wine accompany his life in nature. Along with fellow poets he gathers mountain herbs and goes fishing. He leads a life of honorable poverty.

 

(2) Exile gasa

The bitter emotions of the nobility of the Yi dynasty are expressed in gasa written in exile following their defeat in factional wrangling. In spite of all the sufferings and loneliness, the speaker in exile gasa retains his loyalty to the king. Sense of defeat and frustration goes together with lamentation, supplication and grief. But the will for reunion with the king lingers amidst resignation or despair.

The first exile gasa was Manpun-ga by Cho Ui (1454-1503). He was followed by Chung Chol, Kim Cheon-taik, Yi Chin-yu, Cho U-in, Song Ju-sok, Ahn Jo-won and Kim Chin-hyung.

Most excellent of all are Chung Chol’s Samiin-gok (Song of Longing) and its sequel, Sok-samiin-gok, in which a retainer’s longing for the king is compared to the passion of heterosexual love.

(3) Travel gasa

Travelling to a remote place and description of itinerary, scenery and historical remains along with expression of sentiments constitute the features of travel gasa. The first work of this genre is Gwanseo-byeolgok by Paik Kwang-hong (1572-?). He was soon followed by Chung Chol and Yi Hyun. In the seventeenth century the same tradition was continued by Pak In-no, Cho U-in and Pak Soon-wu.

Paik Kwang-hong was appointed magistrate to Pyeongan Province in 1555. Gwanseo-byeolgok depicts the scenery and manners of the region. In the first half of the Yi dynasty, the author of a travel Gasa is generally an official; he gives an account of his itinerary and visits beautiful spots in the place of his appointment, describing his delight, loneliness and longing for the king. In the latter half of the dynasty, there are many which deal with pure sightseeing. Many place names in travel Gasa are often compared to scenic spots in China, along with allusions to persons and historic facts associated with those places.

(4) Warfare gasa

In the extremity of war, man hopes for victory and longs for peace; and a stout will in the face of adversities is manifested. Among the few Gasa treating warfare, the first one is Namjong-ga by Yang Sa-eon, who was followed by Pak In-no.

On the invasion of the Japanese in 1555, Yang Sa-eon joined the staff of Kim Kyung-sok, the commander of the forces in Jeonra Province. Namjong- ga gives a realistic account of how victory was won over the Japanese. Pak In-no, Cho Hyun and Chai Duk-ui followed the example of Namjong-ga.

Gasa of this genre express hostility toward enemies and fidelity to the king.

(5) Morality gasa

Confucianism was the national policy of the Yi dynasty and gasa helped to propagate the Confucian ethics. Confucianism inculcated the daily practice of filial piety, brotherly love, fidelity and faithfulness. Its ideal was formation of a noble character, emphasizing the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom. It was believed that nobility of character through moral training is the basis of all human relationships from home management to statecraft.

Yi Hwang, Cho Shik, Yi Yi, Huh Jon and Yi Won-ik dealt in their gasa with the principles and disciplines of human relations as well as other manners and customs such as education, friendship, funeral, sacrificial rites, marriage, hospitality, etiquette and management of household affairs.

(6) Praise gasa

This genre stems from Miin-byeolgok (Song of a Beauty) by Yang Sa-eon. It praises beauty of looks or virtuous conduct. It can also extol wise government as Pak In-no did in Yeongnam-ga or honor people on their festivals.

(7) Longing gasa

Longing of a woman for her husband in a long period of separation is characteristic of this genre, initiated by Huh Nansolhon in Kyuwon-ga (Song of a Grieving Lady) and followed by a host of others.

(8) Religious gasa

This is composed to propagate the doctrines of Buddhism, Catholicism or religions of Korean origin such as Cheondo-gyo and Daichong-gyo. Buddhist Gasa as well as the others usually have didactic aim rather than literary qualities. China and Japan had counterparts of this type. It was initiated by Monk Naong toward the end of the Koryeo dynasty to be followed by many monks of the Yi dynasty. Prayers and good works are recommended for the rebirth in Paradise. Hwesim-gok (Song of Conversion) by Saint Seosan is a noted example.

Catholic gasa began to be written with the introduction of Seohak (the Western Learning, i.e., Catholicism) in the reign of King Yeong Jo. They were written to propagate its doctrines despite persecutions by the government. Cheondo-gyo arose toward the end of the Yi dynasty; it was founded by the Donghak Movement (the Eastern Learning) to oppose Seohak (Catholicism). Cheondo-gyo and Daichong-gyo gasa were all written for propagation of their doctrines.

(9) Farming gasa

The customs of the months and the management of farming are treated in this genre. A representative work is Nongga-wolryeong-ga (Song of the Months at a Farming Village) by Jung Hak-yu (1789-1859). It delineates the hardworking life of farmers relying upon the dispensation of Heaven throughout a year.

(10) Outing gasa

The Confucianist ethics imposed a strict separation between the sexes. It imposed predominance of man over woman; ladies of noble birth led secluded life, while their husbands enjoyed life of refinement in association with gisaeng. Under such circumstances, however, on spring and autumn festivals ladies returned to parents’ home. During these periods of respite they went on picnic with the women folks of the village. Outing gasa grew out of such enjoyable custom.

Translated by

Lee Young-gul