Th e basic principles of hatha-yoga contain special diet, cleaning procedures and three groups of physical exercises: asana, pranayama and mudras.
Asanas are static postures with diff erent degrees of complexity that in major term produce eff ect upon physical and etheric body (an-namaya and pranamaya in yogic classifi cation). According to the type of eff ect onemay single out stretching (bending), twisting, strain, in-verted asanas, compressive and combined asanas that produce a quite PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 149
certain eff ect. Physiological impact of asanas upon human organism has not been studied enough. We have carried out an investigation of asanas eff ect upon individual’s psychological state that has shown that diff erent types of asanas produce diff erent infl uence. Th ose mostly effective upon psychological state are the stretchings of diff erent zones of body’s front and back. For instance making exercises that stretch the muscles of back, loins and buttocks facilitate a considerable (up to 1.5
times) rise of vegetative tonus. And on the contrary — exercises that stretch the front body muscles result in reduction of this coeffi cient rate. Th is conclusion comes in fair correlation with notions of ancient Indian medicine that refers body’s front to the “passive zone” while its back is treated as the “active” one. Th e results obtained are also verifi ed by W. Reich’s theory of pectoral girdles which enables one’s speaking about feasibility of using asanas for deliberate infl uence upon psyche through the mechanism of relaxation of muscles contractures that was described by W. Reich. Static gymnastics worked out by A.
Lowen makes analogous eff ect upon the psyche.
Pranayamas are special breathing exercises that eff ect upon both individual’s physiological compound by means of changing the rate of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration, and the emotional one — the kamamaya in Indian tradition — with help of the system of psychosomatic correlations and specifi c breath types.
Mudra sare specifi c gestures that mainly infl uence upon individual’s subconscious mind. Meditations come as special exercises for astral and mental bodies (kamamaya and manomaya) and are sometimes referred to “supreme” sections of yoga — the raja-yoga.
Raja-yoga (meaning royal yoga in Sanskrit) has a goal of taking control over individual’s psychic state, i.e. mastering administration of one’s astral and mental bodies. Th e main technique of raja-yoga is that of meditation. Th e methods of meditation are complicated and manifold and they shal not come under detailed consideration within the scope of this book.
Djnana-yoga is an intel ectual transformation that according to opinion of Indians can be very eff ective. In terms of Christian culture we come across the analogue of djnana-yoga in the so-cal ed Mary’s way since she was listening to Christ, was attentive to his words, under-150 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
standing the things he was doing and saying, and thus has achieved her self-realization. One of the basic techniques of djnana-yoga is intel ectual diff erentiation between reality of authentic type (the Atman) and the reality of everyday common world that comes as mere manifestation of the illusion (the maya). Th e practicing adept contemplates on diff erent, more and more abstract elements of reality coming to conclusion about their il usiveness until the moment that on an impulse of intel ectual ecstasy he becomes aware of their true value. In this way the contemplation as seen by fol owers of djnana yoga diff ers from that stil cogitation of western intel ectuals and comes as a form of attaining mystic experience.
Karma-yoga is the discipline of action. In Christian tradition we fi nd the analogue of karma-yoga in the way of Martha, or the method of al egiance and attribute. In Indian tradition this way has been formulated in the Bhagavad Gita in the fol owing manner: in his striving for deliverance the individual should act in compliance with his duty and devote the fruits of his action to the Deity.
…concerning the «three qualities;»
But thou, be free of the «three qualities,»
Free of the «pairs of opposites,» and free
From that sad righteousness which calculates;
Self-ruled…!!!
Abandoning desires which shake the mind
Finds in his soul full comfort for his soul,
He hath attained the Yog that man is such!
Bhagavad Gita [116]
Later on, in ca. 3-2nd centuries B.C. an outstanding Indian mystic Patanjali has made a systematization of known yogic techniques in his work “Yoga Sutra” [101]. Patanjali has presented one’s moving towards merger with Atman as a consequential passing of eight stages each of them including one group of psycho-techniques:
Yama — the system of vows and self-restraints; Niyama — the system of cleanliness procedures; Asana — static postures;
Pranayama — system of breath-works;
Pratyahara — control over sense receptors;
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Dharana — preserving one’s consciousness in stable, concentrated state;
Dhyana — the ability of deliberate consciousness concentration upon selected object;
Samadhi — the supreme state in which the individual comprehends true essence of the objects that surround him. In order to understand psychological core of this state we shall use the quotation from Patanjali:
1. Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff from taking various forms 2. At that time the seer rests in his own (unmodifi ed) state.
3. At other times seer is identifi ed with the modifi cations [101].
In this way according to Patanjali the target of yoga was that of generating inner core of one’s “self”, crystallization of consciousness, singling out the part of one’s psyche that would become resistant against inner and exterior emotional or intellectual aff ects (kilesa or klesha).
Many contemporary commentators are trying to give various vague interpretations for the essence of pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi that are caused by western philosophic intel ectual tradition rather than by having one’s own mystic experience. For instance, sa-myama is referred to as the stages of “subject and object merger”. Yet in reality yoga is practical; its character is extremely rational and psychological. In “Mokshadharma Parva” [167], one of the most wel -known parts of Mahabharata one may fi nd a very simple and real description of the dharana state: ”As a man of cool courage and determination, while ascending a fl ight of steps with a vessel full of oil in his hands, does not spill even a drop of the liquid if frightened and threatened by persons armed with weapons…Th e concentration of a man with a vessel is the dharana”. Th us dharana does not come as an unconscious state but a thorough concentration on performed action. In western tradition the essence of other yoga stages — including that of Samadhi — is also treated in evidently faulty way.
Yoga represents a substantial y extensive, broad-encompassing complex doctrine that disposes of methods for development of practical y all human psyche elements: emotional, intellectual, volition, as well as 152 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
modifi cation of external behavioral forms. Cultural signifi cance of yoga is non-homogenous yet on its example one may see that any esoteric psychopractice comes as a consequence and at the same time as the utmost manifestation of existential myth that makes basis of this or that culture.
5.3.2. Tantrism
In scope of esoteric systems there is a phenomenon that bears a rather specifi c character, and that is tantra (tantra — a type of literary philosophic work created in form of a dialogue between Shiva and Shakti) [39; 143]. Unlike ascetic practices of yoga, tantra assumed achievement of transpersonal states (merger with Ishvara — universal spirit or universal basic notion) by means of utmost, total experiencing of al secular temptations. In this term there comes an il ustrative ritual of “fi ve M’s” that includes consequential breach of basic religious taboos — taking wine, meat, fi sh, taking narcotic agents and having sexual intercourse. A signifi cant point here is the one that the practice of taboos breaching was used only at the time of tantric rituals’ performance and was not spread onto the everyday life.
In tantra special attention was paid to sexual practices and that is why in mass consciousness of today tantra in referred to as merely yoga of sex, this being a one-idea’d view. In actual fact sexual practices of tantra were neither the goal of themselves nor the actions of basic importance yet came as a means of getting into ecstatic states by a couple or by one of partners. According to the ideas of tantra followers these states were of cosmic character; they considered sexual act to be sacral since it was treated for the replay of cosmic act of the primary divine couple of Shiva and Shakti. Th e semen was being brought to the altar of female womb:
«Woman, O Gautama, is the fi re, her sexual organ is the fuel, the hairs the smoke, the vulva the fl ame, sexual intercourse the cinders, enjoyment the sparks. In this fi re the gods off er semen as libation”.
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad [299]
Let us also note that usage of sex as a constituent element of a psychopractice does not come as exclusion. Since this type of intercourse is one of the most signifi cant in life of an individual and society at a PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 153
whole and corresponding emotions are among the strongest ones they were exploited by mostly all esoteric systems.
It might have been within the scope of Tantrism that the systems of psycho-somatic correlations were studied and used for the fi rst time.
And here both ideology of tantra and elaborated system of correlations — the chakra system — are strikingly similar to the system of psycho-somatic correspondences of body-oriented psychotherapy of today. According to tantra notions the individual lives in the temple of a body — a pure, sacral body that serves for deliverance of spiritual energy. One should not fi ght against his body; on the contrary — one should cognize this body and use for one’s getting to higher levels of consciousness. Being the fundamental element of existence, sexual energy also comes as a source of development. Being located in lower energetic centers this energy evokes desire and pleasure. Coming up to upper centers it facilitates one’s reaching supreme states. Coming to heart this energy gives raise to love and when it reaches the top of one’s head it evokes the feeling of cosmic ecstasy, new spiritual inception.
“Th is world owes to passion, and passion comes as its deliverance”.
Hevajra Tantra
Sex serves for discharge and further transformation of sexual energy. In order to intensify perceptions and feelings Tantra followers were using special sexual poses and types of friction movements. Combination of pleasant and unpleasant notions also facilitates energy release, that is why practicing individuals of supreme initiations were trying to unite sexual occurrences with one’s being in scaring places, for instance, among dead bodies.
But for sexual practices Tantra had an extremely intricate system of various meditative practices. Th e Vijnana Bhajrava Tantra only contains description of more than a hundred of them. In Tantra they used yogic asanas and mudras, systems of vows, dynamic meditations. A specifi c group of psychopractices proper to Tantrism was that ritual breach of general y accepted social bans, for instance: making group sex, incest, eating the ritual y impure food etc. Such practices also enabled to activate one’s psyche, release required inner energy and deliver from hindering mind-sets.
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“In the same way, having meditated with an unwaveringand one-pointed mind on the entire universe being burnt(by Kaalagni), that man becomes a godman or attains asupreme state of manhood”.
Vijnana Bhairava Tantra [39]
Another important goal of tantra was cultivation and enhancement of individual’s emotional sphere.
At that time, feeling the sensation of an ant crawling in thebody, one experiences the supreme bliss.
Vijnana Bhairava Tantra [39]
Th ere are seven basic tantra schools — or achara, yet from tantric point of view it is not necessary that one passes al of these paths in terms of one’s single life.
1. Vedachara (the path of Vedas) is based upon daily practice of Vedic rites. Its followers worship numerous deities. Th e character of the practice is mostly outward and ritual: recitation of Vedas, fi ery sacrifi ces etc. Meditative practices are either absent or remain in their very germinal state. It is also referred to as the “path of action” — kri-yamarga.
2. Vishnavachara (the path of Vishnu). Th e main practice here is worshipping (usual y done in free form) of a selected deity (in mostly cases this being Vishnu). Meditative practices are few in number. It is also referred to as “the path of al egiance” — bkhaktimarga.
3. Shivachara (the path of Shiva). Faith and allegiance are supported by some more substantial notions — by knowledge. Practicing adepts attain determination and inclination towards intensive tapas. Shiva comes as the patron of Shivachara. Yogic practices and meditations have a signifi cant value here though Vedic rituals are stil preserved.
Th is achara is referred to as “the path of knowledge” — djnanamarga.
4. Dakshinachara (the favourable path) is usual y cal ed the right-hand tantra. It is based upon worship of Shakti, conscious and active energy, the female guise of Shiva. It is also referred to as “the path of unity” or “the path of returning to original source” — the nivrittimarga.
5. Vamachara (the unfavorable path) is being called the left-hand tantra. Shakti also comes as the object of worship, but this achara is PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 155
characterized by active usage of sexual ceremonies and sacraments (Pancha Tattva, Chakrapuja, Bhairavi Chakra). Only individuals that have passed through thorough selection get the right of being taught theVamachara. Th e role of teaching Guru is of major importance. Th ey also cal it “the path of love and bliss” — premanandamarga.
6. Siddhantachara (the path of siddhi) is divided into two acharas (paths) — the yogachara and the aghorachara, these being correspondingly the path of yogin and the path of intrepidity. Worshipped deity is Shiva in its manifestation of Maheshvara — the Supreme creator. Pancha Tattva in its natural kind is not practiced here. In Siddhantachara they use numerous yogic techniques including the legendary Kayakal-pa (the technique of effi cient life prolongation). Besides in aghorachara they practice little-known techniques of working with death — that of the one practicing and of other people. Th ese were aghori who in their time elaborated rituals and meditations done at a cemetery.
7. Kaulachara (the path of the family) is the least known path. Th e attitude to deities can be referred to as “family” one. It does not have its own rituals but here they know about authentic meaning of al rituals and practices. Having no trace of religious acknowledgement, “they look like Shaivas, when on meetings they come as Vaishnavas, and they are Shaktas in their hearts; the Kauls take diff erent forms and wander al over the world”. “No rules of time, no laws of place. He is subjected neither to phases of the moon nor to location of stars. Th e Kaul performs his worldly wandering in various forms. He does not make difference between dirt or sandal paste, between son or enemy, home or cemetery. He becomes a one who is liberated intravitam (djivanmukti) and he is free to do whatever he wants. Knowing al rituals and being aware of their authentic essence he may stay in any achara without being noticed”.
One may easily notice that the rate of subordination to common social norms and values including those religious ones (exoteric) diminishes in course of one’s increasing his initiation level. Moreover, every initiation and admission level rejects the values of the previous one, and it also comes as il ustration of the principle of “taking something beyond” cultural context that is characteristic of esoteric systems.
On the other hand being classical doctrine of India,Tantra il ustrates 156 Andrey G. Safronov. PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS
the principle of successive climbing up the World Mountain — be it transfer from one achara to another one or kundalini rise from lower chakras to upper ones. It is interesting that in tantric tradition the spinal column that kundalini was rising up had the name of Meru, i.e. the same name that the Indian World Mountain had.
5.3.3. Psychopractices of Buddhism
5.3.3.1. Early Buddhism
Upon considering Buddhism as a system of esoteric psychopractices we should make two remarks. On its early development stage Buddhism was esoteric in relation to then prevailing religion that it emerged within — the Brahmanism. Formal y, since it has been generated by Gautama, at that time it was not yet a tradition and thus it was not an esoteric system; stil actual y Buddhism was a very good and systemized recital of ideas and practices that existed at that time.
In this sense we are completely entitled to refer early Buddhism toeso-teric system. Another additional argument in favor of this thesis is that deliberately asocial character of early Buddhist requirements. A monk that was taken member of a cloistral community (in early Buddhism this being an implicit requirement for one’s entering nirvana) was completely deprived from any social activity. Not only was his engagement in any productive work prohibited, he was even restricted from using money. In fact he could live only on alms-gifts. Surely the doctrine formulated in this way could not have suited for the role of “essential” religion. And fi nal y, as it was noted by M. Rozin [210, pg. 149] “the path shown by Gautama” is esoteric since in order to enter nirvana one should change oneself drastically”.
In course of Buddhism routinization and the process of common religion formation on its foundation, in scope of late Buddhism there emerged several schools of esoteric Buddhism that we shal speak about in next paragraphs.
Th e key philosophic and psychological theme of Buddhism is the
“suff ering” [1; 27; 30; 123; 124]. Th e legend says that after six years of intense inner work, upon meditation under the Bodhi tree Buddha attained enlightenment and as a result discovered Four Noble Truths: PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 157
1. Life is suff ering.
“Th is is the noble truth of suff ering: birth is suff ering, aging is suffering, illness is suff ering, death is suff ering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suff ering; union with what is displeasing is suff ering; separation from what is pleasing is suff ering; not to get what one wants is suff ering”.
4. Buddha
2. Th e reason of suff ering is desire (cravings).
“Th is is the noble truth of the origin of suff ering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there, that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination”.
5. Buddha
Buddha thought that craving always gives way to unstable state of mind where the present never comes as satisfactory. If the craving is not satisfi ed, an individual is driven by desire to change the present; in case the craving is satisfi ed there comes fear of change that is followed by new disappointment and dissatisfaction.
3. Th ere is the method of deliverance from suff ering based upon deliverance from craving. Th e cessation of that same craving results in cessation of suff ering. Yet it comes not about extermination of some certain cravings but about elimination of one’s attraction to cravings at a whole, of one’s dependence upon them.
“Even in heavenly pleasures he fi nds no satisfaction, the disciple who is fully awakened delights only in the destruction of all desires”.
Dhammapada
Th is motive diff ers substantial y Buddhism from Tantrism which followers thought it was possible to get rid of cravings by means of their utmost satisfaction.
4. Th ere is a path that leads to cessation of suff erings.
For the path of this kind Buddha off ered “Th e Noble Eigthfold Path” that mainly includes the aspect of morality, the aspect of spiritual discipline and the aspect of self-contemplation: 1) Right speech (i.e. reasonable, amicable, true);
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2) Right outlook (acknowledgement of the Four Noble Truths); 3) Right awareness (rejection of low instincts);
4) Right action (in terms of moral and ethical norms); 5) Right livelihood (“do not get engaged in trades or occupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for other living beings”);
6) Right thought (the individual himself provides control over his cravings and displays);
7) Right eff ort (individual’s evil tendencies are suppressed while good ones are cultivated);
8) Right self-control (concentration and intention development).
On this path the notion “right” is defi ned by the certain subject who takes responsibility for the things that happen.
As it was said earlier, the early Buddhism was based upon mytheme of the Wheel. Th e image of the Wheel is most expressively displayed in the idea of 12 nidanas — the reasons of being [123] that are fi xed in cyclic dependence upon each other. Th is concept develops the fi rst two of Four Noble Truths. Yet in Buddhist tradition one may also fi nd
“ascending” paths.
The early Buddhism psychopractices were directly linked to the concept of the Four Noble Truths thus coming as several groups of methods which goal was that of achieving the whole eight states of the Noble Eightfold Path. Special role was given to methods that were directed atmystic comprehension of the Noble Truths’ essence as well as psychopractices targeted at cessation from cravings. The last group contained numerous vows given by members of sangha (community of monks). A perfect monk was the one who has given maximum vows. An individual who has completely broken off with secular affections had a chance of becoming an arahat — a creature that was entitled to leave to nirvana after his death. Buddhist sources give the following descriptions of the arahat psychological state:
“He did his best in combat, he was fi ghting and in this way he became aware that this circle of birth and death comes as an endless stream. He refused from all states and life conditions… he gave up all “impurities” PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICES IN MYSTIC TRADITIONS: FROM ARCHAIC TO OUR DAYS. Andrey G. Safronov 159
and thus became an Arahat. A piece of gold and a clod of land make no diff er for him. Heaven and hand-palm come as one for his mind”.
Avadana Satoka
“Th e man who is free from credulity, but knows the uncreated, who has cut all ties, removed all temptations, renounced all desires, he is the greatest of men”.
Dhammapada
One may easily see that these practices had the goal of taking an individual beyond the frame of social context, them rejecting the main values of traditional Indian society.
Th e Buddhists were active in using meditative techniques that they divided into two groups: samathas and vipassana. Th e fi rst group techniques are intended forsuspension of consciousness activity, its tran-quillization.
“All thoughts, as soon as they are conjured up, are to be discarded, and even the thought of discarding them is to be put away”.
Mahayana Shraddhotpada Shastra [290]
Th e second group of techniques was that of analytic observation, i.e. intellectual interpretation of phenomena in scope of certain doctrines.
“He who practices “clear observation” should observe that all conditioned phenomena in the world are unstationary and are subject to instantaneous transformation and destruction… He should observe that all that had been conceived in the past was as hazy as a dream, that all that is being conceived in the present is like a fl ash of lightning, and that all that will be conceived in the future will be like clouds that rise up suddenly”.
Mahayana Shraddhotpada Shastra [290]
Th e fol owers of Buddhist yoga singled out eight levels of consciousness development within the process of meditative practice (dhjana).
1. Successive development of fi ve features: thinking that is directed at the object (vitarka); analytic brainwork (vichara); joy that is accompanied by increased consciousness concentration (piti); the feeling of bliss due to comprehension of one’s being close to his goal (sukha) and consciousness’ one-pointedness (ekagrata).
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2. Subsidence of brainwork , formation of serenity feeling; 3. Substitution of joy by mental balance and concentration; 4. Cessation of the feeling of bliss that results in elimination of its antagonist — the suff ering;
5. Exiting beyond any perception of form and complete subsidence of any mental activity;
6. Taking one’s consciousness beyond the limits of space category; 7. Achieving the sphere of “absence of any thing”;
8. Achievement of “neither perception — nor non-perception” state.
In addition to the described “ascending” system of meditative states Buddhism disposed of elaborated system of “therapeutic” meditations, i.e. techniques that helped the apprentice to cope with actual psychological problems, neutralize aff ects, get rid of false mind-sets and attractions (klesha). Th e teacher that performed role of psychotherapist was the one to line up and provide the apprentice with certain number of techniques suitable for him. Th e main method that was used in such meditations was the method of displacement by an opposite notion. For instance an apprentice could have observed impurities (dead bodies, excrements) to overcome aff ects and attractions; amiability for elimination of wrath, cause-and-eff ect relations for preclusion of il iter-ateness and other. In Visuddhi-magga they enlist forty possible objects for meditation that are divided into fi ve groups: symbols; object that evoke disgust; recol ection (of Buddhist values); four states of Brahma (amiability; compassion; sharing common joy; equilibrium); the level