The effects of biological agents are gen-
the ability of enemy forces to fight. This can
erally the same as for the diseases they are
be done by killing or incapacitating troops
associated with, such as typhoid or influenza.
and by causing food or supply shortage.
These effects can be minor, such as a com-
mon cold; or prolonged illnesses which can
Biological agents consist of groups of liv-
result in death, such as plague. TM 3-216 con-
ing microorganisms such as rickettsia, pro-
tains complete descriptions of diseases that
tozoa, and viruses. Most are easily destroyed
can be produced by possible biological agents.
by sunlight or weather within hours, but
some can remain inactive for longer periods
BIOLOGICAL AGENT DETECTION
of time. Most enemy biological agents are
Biological attacks are difficult to recog-
disseminated in aerosol form. This allows
nize. However, they can be detected by alert
them to be spread rapidly by the wind. Others
troops and the intelligence sources of major
are transmitted by insects (vectors) such as
commands. Since sunlight reduces the effects
mosquitoes and ticks.
of biological agents, the most likely time for a
Toxins are also considered in the class of
biological attack is in the evening and early
biological agents. These can be derived from
morning hours. Cloudy and foggy days are
plants, animals or bacteria. The "Yellow
also ideal for launching biological attacks.
Rain" toxins which witnesses and victims
The means of delivering biological agents
described as toxic rain (because the agent
can signal an attack. The appearance of
was released from aircraft as yellow powder
seemingly ineffectual explosive bomblets and
or liquid) used in Southeast and Southwest
missiles; aircraft with spray tanks; and gen-
Asia consisted of a mixture of toxins belong-
erators may signal a biological attack. An
ing to the tricothecene mycotoxins family.
abnormal number of vectors, such as mosqui-
The tricothecene mycotoxins are found under
toes, flies, mites, ticks, and lice may also be
certain conditions in cereal grain. There are
carrying the agents. On the other hand, other
also neurotoxins such as botulinum toxin
subtler measures such as using enemy infil-
which is occasionally found in food poi-
trators to contaminate water and food sup-
soning. Depending on the type of toxin, con-
plies may escape early detection. The follow-
centration, and exposure, toxins can be used
ing illustration shows some of the alerting
as lethal agents or incapacitants. Some of the
signs that could signal a biological attack.
F-14
FM 44-18-1
F-15
FM 44-18-1
CHEMICAL AGENTS
AND THEIR EFFECTS
If a biological attack is detected, stay
Chemical agents are used to kill, injure,
masked and buttoned up in your protective
or incapacitate personnel. The effects pro-
clothing. Drink and eat only from sealed con-
duced by these agents are dose-dependent.
tainers. "Yellow rain" or other types of toxins This means that increased doses produce a
cannot be detected by standard CW detection
corresponding increase in the severity of the
devices. Individual defense measures nor-
effects.
mally associated with a persistent chemical
Through the use of various delivery sys-
agent attack will protect personnel against
tems, threat forces can initiate and sustain
toxins; that is, the wearing of the protective
large-scale chemical warfare operations.
mask with hood, overgarment, gloves, and
They can deliver this chemical ordnance in a
booties and implementation of MOPP. Upon
variety of ways, from mines and grenades to
recognition of an attack or onset of symp-
using tactical aircraft. The following illus-
toms, personnel should immediately mask
tration presents some of these delivery
and put on all protective equipment (MOPP 4).
means.
If a chemical agent is detected, perform
Put on your protective clothing.
the following procedures as quickly as
Remove your mask only after an ALL
possible:
CLEAR signal is given and you are ordered
Stop breathing.
by appropriate authority to remove it.
Put on your protective mask.
Other actions will vary with the chemi-
cal agent being used. The four types of chem-
Clear and check your mask.
ical agents and their corresponding first aid
measures are described in the following para-
Resume normal breathing.
graphs. Detailed techniques for chemical
Sound the NBC alarm (per SOP).
agent first aid are listed in FM 21-11.
F-16
FM 44-18-1
Nerve Agents
Nerve agents directly affect the nervous
Self aid. Immediately put on the protective system and are highly toxic in both liquid
mask. Remove a nerve agent antidote kit
and vapor form. Nerve agent vapor is readily
Mark I from the protective mask carrier and
absorbed by the eyes and by tissues in the
inject yourself in the thigh with the two injec-
nose, throat, and lungs. The liquid readily
tors from the kit. Use the small injector first.
penetrates the skin, eyes, and tissues of the
Hold the injector against the thigh for at
body. Its effects are similar whether inhaled
least 10 seconds. Follow this procedure with
or absorbed.
the second injector (large auto-injector) on
The following are symptoms of nerve
the other thigh. Remove the injectors and
agent exposure:
place each injector needle through the pocket
flap of the overgarment and bend the needle
Tightness of the chest and difficult
to form a hook. Massage the area of injection
breathing.
if time permits.If you experience dryness in
Excessive sweating and drooling.
the mouth and a rapid heartbeat in about 5
minutes after injecting a set, you have re-
Nausea, stomach cramps, and vomiting.
ceived enough antidote. However, if symp-
Dimness of vision and pinpointing of the
toms of nerve agent poisoning persist or recur
pupils of the eyes.
after 10-15 minutes, you may inject another
set of auto-injectors from the Mark I nerve
Convulsions and death.
agent antidote kit. The maximum number of
Unexplained runny nose.
sets you may administer to yourself is three.
The administration of more than three sets
Sudden headache.
must be authorized by medical support
Localized twitching in an area of exposed/
personnel.
contaminated skin.
Buddy aid. If an individual experiences
Most nerve agents are quick acting when
severe symptoms after nerve agent poisoning
inhaled with some symptoms developing in 1
and is unable to treat himself, another soldier
to 2 minutes. They act quicker when absorbed
will be required to perform buddy aid mea-
through damaged skin. When the eyes are
sures. If your buddy experiences nerve agent
exposed to nerve agent vapor, the pupils will
poisoning, mask him. Using the victim’s
become pinpointed. However, this pinpoint-
nerve agent antidote kits Mark I, administer
ing may not occur for 10 minutes or longer if
three sets immediately and in rapid succes-
exposure was to a low concentration vapor.
sion in the thigh muscles of the legs. Hook the
When only the skin is exposed to liquid nerve
expended auto-injectors to his overgarment
agent, the pupils may remain normal or be
pocket flap. Administer the back pressure
only slightly reduced in size. The casualties
arm lift method of artificial respiration if
caused by nerve agents can range from mild
breathing is difficult or has ceased. Seek
disability to death. This will depend on the
medical attention for the casualty.
dose received and the adequacy and speed of
first aid treatment.
Blister Agents
Blister agents come in liquid or vapor
If you or one of your buddies experience
form. They may appear as colorless or dark
any or all of the mild symptoms of nerve
brown oily droplets. The agents are effective
agent poisoning, you must perform first aid
even in small amounts and produce delayed
measures immediately.
effects. For example, a pinhead-size drop of
F-17
FM 44-18-1
mustard agent (one of the most common
Individual reactions to these agents are
types of blister agents) can produce a blister 1
headache, dizziness, pink skin color, eye and
inch in diameter. The effects are often more
nose irritation, nausea, convulsions, slow or
serious than what is first seen. Exposure to
rapid breathing, rapid heartbeat, and coma.
some agents may go unnoticed because they
usually do not cause immediate pain or signs
If the symptoms of blood agent poison-
of injury. Unprotected troops exposed to low
ing appear, you should immediately crush
vapor concentrations for long periods of time
two amyl nitrite ampules and place them
can eventually become casualties.
inside the face piece of the mask, next to the
eyes. Repeat this every 4 to 5 minutes until
Primarily, blister agents affect the eyes
normal breathing returns, or a total of eight
and lungs and blister the skin. However, they
ampules have been used. Medical personnel
can burn or blister any part of the body they
must approve the use of more than eight
contact. The degree of this effect depends on
ampules. Artificial respiration may be neces-
the type and concentration of the agent, the
sary in some cases.
victim’s activity, and the exposure time. Some
types of blister agents are painless, others
Choking Agents
sting, and still others cause burning welts.
Choking agents are usually dissemi-
Blister agents which come in direct con-
nated as gases and are taken into the body by
tact with the eyes will produce marked effects
breathing. The victim usually feels no initial
such as redness, inflammation, and tempor-
effects from choking agents. Delayed effects
ary or permanent blindness.
usually occur 2 to 4 hours after exposure.
They are quickly absorbed through the
Choking agents affect the respiratory
skin. The affected area may redden anytime
system by damaging the lungs and, in severe
up to 12 hours after exposure, depending on
cases, causing the lungs to fill with fluid.
the concentration and weather conditions.
This causes a victim to literally drown in his
Blisters may appear in a day or less following
own fluids. Other symptoms include the
the reddening. Healing time varies from 6
following:
days to as much as weeks in severe cases,
particularly those involving moist skin areas,
Rapid and shallow breathing.
such as the crotch and armpits.
Painful coughing and choking.
Inhalation of blister agents will cause
Tightness in the chest.
serious damage to tissues in the mouth, nose,
throat, and lungs.
Nausea and headache.
The main danger from blisters is infec-
Watering of the eyes.
tion. If a blister agent has come into contact
Discomfort and fatigue.
with your eyes, flush your eyes immediately
with water. Decontaminate any agent on
Shock and death.
your skin using the M258A1 decontamina-
If the symptoms for a choking agent
tion kit (described later in this chapter) or by
using soap and water.
develop, let another crew member or buddy
know. Take cover and keep warm. Move only
Blood Agents
if absolutely necessary and await medical
Blood agents come in vapor (gas) form.
attention.
F-18
FM 44-18-1
F-19
FM 44-18-1
F-20
FM 44-18-1
CHEMICAL AGENT DETECTION
AND IDENTIFICATION
Chemical agents can be detected by use
aerosol form. The two major components in
of an automated chemical agent alarm sys-
the alarm system—M43 detector unit and
tem and the M256 chemical agent detection
M42 alarm unit—are shown in the following
kit.
illustration. The alarm sounds when the
Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm
detector discovers nerve agent (G or V), blood
The automatic chemical agent alarm is
agent (Cyanide compounds), or choking
an automatic miniature chemistry labora-
agents (Phosgene). The alarm system will be
tory which continuously samples the air. It
issued by MTOE. TM 3-6665-225-12 provides
detects persistent and nonpersistent threat
instructions for the use of the alarm by
agents when they are in vapor or inhalable
operator and organizational personnel.
M256 Chemical Agent Detector Kit
This kit detects dangerous vapor concen-
unit is under chemical attack, when a chemi-
trations of all known nerve, blister, and blood
cal attack is reported to be imminent, or when
agents. It can detect residual surface contam-
the presence of a chemical agent is suspected.
ination. Detailed operating instructions are
See TM 3-6665-307-10 for further information
contained in the kit. The kit is used when the
on this kit.
F-21
FM 44-18-1
ABC-M8 Chemical Agent
Detector Paper
A booklet of this paper is part of each
indicates the presence of a liquid chemical
detector kit and is also issued to individuals.
agent. The detector paper is worn by individ-
The sheets are impregnated with chemicals
uals and/or attached to vehicles or other pie-
that turn different colors when in contact
ces of equipment. The paper will detect all
with liquid chemical agents. A color chart is
known liquid chemical agents under all types
included in the booklet to aid in interpreting
of weather conditions. It will not detect
the test.
vapors. The paper will replace M8 detector
paper except for that which is included as a
Liquid Agent Detector Paper M9
component in the M256 kit and M34 sam-
This adhesive-backed gray-green paper
pling kit.
FM-22
FM 44-18-1
CHEMICAL AGENT
DECONTAMINATION
Chemical decontamination includes the
Hold your breath, close eyes, and lift hood
prompt removal of agents from the eyes and
and mask from chin.
the decontamination of the skin. Decontami-