Creation of Minimal Plasma Cell Systems by Self-Organization in Earth’s Dark Biosphere leading to the Evolution of Dark Plasma Life Forms
Jay Alfred
Submitted to the Journal of Unconventional Theories and Research
(Scientific Journals International)
On 17 March 2009
Abstract
We explore the possibility that the visible Earth is sitting inside a low density halo of dark plasma. Furthermore, noting work which suggests that minimal ordinary plasma cell-systems can be generated in the laboratory, we suggest that minimal dark plasma cell-systems were generated within this dark halo/biosphere in the early Earth. We predict the existence of terrestrial dark plasma life forms which evolved from these minimal plasma cell systems. We explore the morphology of these plasma life forms and predict that they would exhibit signature features associated with well-structured plasma bodies in the laboratory.
I. INTRODUCTION
Recent computations suggest that the dark matter density in the Solar System and around the Earth [1, 2] exceeds the galactic halo density significantly. This aggregation of dark matter particles around the Earth forms effectively a halo of dark matter particles. It has also been proposed that dark matter may be composed of plasmas of exotic particles [3]. It therefore logically follows that a dark matter halo exists around the visible component of Earth composed largely of plasmas of exotic particles.
Laboratory experiments have suggested that plasma spheres may be generated spontaneously in the laboratory through self-organization. These spheres appear to possess attributes commonly associated with life forms [6]. Furthermore, more recently, numerical computer simulations have suggested that complex plasmas may naturally self-organize into stable interacting helical structures that exhibit features normally attributed to DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) in organic living matter. The self-organization is based on non-trivial plasma dynamics [7].
From the above, it is feasible to theorize that partially ionized plasmas of exotic particles self-organized into minimal plasma cell systems, which possessed attributes associated with life forms, in the early Earth. It is proposed that these minimal cell systems then evolved on this planet over more than 4GYr to more complex plasma life forms that thrived in (what became) Earth’s dark biosphere.
II. DARK MATTER DENSITY AROUND EARTH
The background galactic halo dark matter density ρDM is about 5.35 x 10-28 kg cm-3 [4]. The mass of dark matter within the Solar System, between 0.2 AU and 100 AU, as a result of gravitational capture, was estimated to be 1.07 x 1020 kg (or 1.78 x 10-5 the Earth mass) [1]. The mass of dark matter was estimated to be 7.69 x 1019 kg within the orbit of Neptune and 3.23 x 1017 kg within the orbit of Earth (i.e. approximately within 1 AU). The dark matter density ρDM within the orbit of the Earth (or approximately 1 AU) would therefore be approximately 9.65 x 10-23 kg cm-3. This is greater than the background galactic halo dark matter density by five orders of magnitude.
Xu and Sigel’s [1] estimate that the dark matter density around Earth exceeds the galactic halo density significantly has been correlated by Adler [2]. Anomalies relating to accelerations, observed during fly-bys of spacecraft orbiting the Earth, suggest that the dark matter density around Earth had been significantly understated. According to Adler [2] the magnitude of the observed anomalies requires dark matter densities many orders of magnitude greater than the galactic halo density.
Adler has suggested that by comparing the total mass (in gravitational units) of the Earth-Moon system (determined by lunar laser ranging) with the sum of the lunar mass (determined by its gravitational action on satellites or asteroids) and the Earth mass (determined by the LAGEOS geodetic survey satellite), a direct measure of the mass of Earth-bound dark matter lying between the radius of the Moon’s orbit and the geodetic satellite orbit can be obtained. Based on this, the mass of Earth-bound dark matter must be less than 4×10-9 of the Earth’s mass, giving an upper dark matter mass limit of 2.32 x 1016 kg. The mass of the Earth-bound dark matter is approximately one billionth of Earth’s mass and therefore has negligible effects on gravity.
To explain the flyby anomalies, Earth-bound dark matter would have to be concentrated within a radius of about 70,000 km around Earth, within a volume of approximately 1.44 × 1030 cm3. For the dark matter mass within this volume not to exceed 4 × 10-9 of the Earth’s mass, the mean dark matter density would have to be about 10-14 kg cm-3. This is greater than the background galactic halo dark matter density by fourteen orders of magnitude.
Frere, Ling, and Vertongen [5] have proposed that dark matter concentrations within our galactic neighborhood became bound to the Solar System during its formation. Adler [2] suggests that a large density within the Solar System could result from an accumulation cascade. In this scenario dark matter that accumulates within the Solar System (including the initial contribution during its formation) over its lifetime leads to further accumulation through gravitational capture. This cascade of Earth bound dark matter results in a dark matter density within the Solar System far exceeding the average density in the galaxy.
Adler [2] contends that dark matter particle density peaks at about 70,000 km, then reduces until it is much lower on the Earth’s surface (although still higher than the background galactic halo density) and the interior of the Earth. Various methods were used to arrive at this conclusion. At 12,600 km, the LAGEOS satellite experienced smaller residual accelerations, due to drag effects, of 3 x 10-12 ms-2 compared to 10-6 ms-2 at higher altitudes.
The mean dark matter density on the surface of the Earth, assuming a steady-state situation and similar dark matter velocities at Earth’s radius (at the surface) of 6,400 km and 70,000 km was estimated to be much lower at 10-23 kg cm-3. This is still five orders of magnitude higher than the galactic halo density. Furthermore, the mean dark matter density in the interior of the Earth was estimated to be even lower, being not more than 1.07 x 10-28 kg cm-3 (this is slightly lower than the background galactic halo density). The latter estimates were determined by Adler using a different method i.e. by analyzing the Earth’s heat flow budget and luminosity, assuming a steady-state situation. Adler concludes that dark matter density is therefore much smaller near the Moon’s orbit (which exceeds 70,000 km) and near the Earth’s surface using a different set of analyses and assumptions.
Estimates of dark matter around Earth can be confirmed by further analysis of spacecraft acceleration anomalies and sensitive underground detection facilities. An enhanced Solar System density of dark matter particles would show up as a daily sidereal time modulation of dark matter particle counting rates in DAMA/LIBRA type of experiments, in addition to any annual modulation in the counting rate [2]. More accurate assessments of a larger sample of spacecraft acceleration anomalies and dark matter particle detections in the future, coupled with a more consistent measurement model, may alter the density profile of dark matter within the Earth system, particularly on the surface and the interior of the Earth, as proposed by Adler [2].
III. EARTH’S DARK MATTER HALO
Based on the analyses above [1, 2], we conclude that there exists a halo of dark matter particles around the visible component of the Earth within a radius of approximately 70,000 km. Considering that dark matter density varies significantly over different Earth radii, it is possible to model the dark matter density as being distributed in concentric shells of different particle densities around Earth.
A sphere of dark plasma with a radius of 70,000 km [2] has a volume of 1.44 x 1030 cm3. The volume of the visible Earth at a radius of 6,378km is about 1.09 x 1027 cm3. This means that the dark matter halo would be three orders of magnitude or about 1.32 x 103 or 1,320 times larger in volume than the visible rocky Earth. This approximates with the dimensional relationship between the volume of Jupiter’s huge gas envelope and its tiny rocky core (the latter approximates the volume of the visible rocky Earth). In other words, we would expect an envelope of dark matter particles the size of Jupiter around the visible component of the Earth with a mean density of 10-14 kg cm-3 [2].
Xu and Siegel [1] have also computed dark matter densities for other planets in the Solar System.
Fig 1: Dark Matter around Planets [1]
It is predicted that there should be dark matter halos around planets; and purely dark matter halos and blobs (occupying volumes comparable to planets but with low densities of dark matter particles) within the Solar System that would cause anomalies in spacecraft accelerations that will be measured in the future.
IV. EARTH’S DARK PLASMA HALO
It has been proposed that dark matter may be composed of plasmas of exotic particles [3, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Ackerman et al [3] propose a new long-range U(1)D dark abelian gauge field (“dark electromagnetism") that couples only to dark matter, not to the Standard Model (SM), with gauge coupling constant g and dark fine structure constant 
. (The “D” subscripts refer to the dark sector.) The field, which is taken to be initially a singlet under SU(3)C X SU(2)L X U(1)Y, is anomaly free and provides the right relic abundance at thermal freeze-out. The correct relic abundance can be obtained if the dark matter couples to the conventional weak interactions. Under an extended model, DM particles are charged under both SU(2)L and U(1)D .
The dark matter consists of an equal mixture of positive and negative charges under the new force which is mediated by “dark photons” that are the source of “dark radiation”. In the most basic scenario, they [3] propose a dark sector which consists of a single particle X with U(1)D charge of +1 along with its antiparticle 
with a charge of -1. In other words, it is a plasma of positively and negatively charged particles and anti-particles or an “ambiplasma”. Since the galactic DM halo is overall neutral under U(1)D there are no net long-range electromagnetic interactions in the dark sector. Quasi-neutrality is of course a general feature of plasma. Plasma effects in dark matter dynamics are therefore expected. However, these effects are only very briefly explored in Ackerman et al’s paper [3].
Annihilations between particle and anti-particles are suppressed and dark matter will be effectively collisionless if the dark matter mass is sufficiently high, in the TeV range, and
the dark fine structure constant αD < 10 outside the galactic cores. Inside galactic cores, however, annihilations are expected to occur when the density of dark matter reaches high values. If this is the case, then annihilation radiation in the form of gamma rays from the center of our galaxy may be detectable to distances of tens to hundreds of Mpc and would provide evidence of the existence of dark matter in the center of the Milky Way. Results from the INTEGRAL satellite [8], however, do not support dark matter as the major source of the gamma rays from the center of our galaxy. This is because it shows an asymmetry of emission (by a factor of two) with respect to the central axis of the galaxy, which is correlated more with the distribution of low mass X-ray binaries than with the predicted distribution of dark matter in the galactic core. The question of whether anti-dark matter actually exists is an empirical matter for further investigation. The fact that there are no significant sources of gamma (annihilation) radiation within a radius of 70,000 km from the center of the Earth (i.e. within Earth’s dark plasma halo), despite the estimated high density of dark matter around this region, rules out large amounts of anti-dark matter in the vicinity of the Earth.
The dark plasma envisaged in this paper would therefore consist of positively and negatively charged particles with varying mass, similar to the attributes of the heavy and light charginos under the MSSM (Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model), together with neutrals (such as MSSM’s neutralinos). The dark tenuous plasma in the Earth system would therefore be composed of partially ionized plasmas of heavy and light DM particles with opposite U(1)D charge, together with neutral DM particles.
It is envisaged that the (percentage) difference between the masses of the charged DM particles are not as great as between the proton and the electron and more in line with the MSSM’s heavy and light charginos. Due to the large inter-particle distance in tenuous plasma and the weaker dark electromagnetic interactions (approximately one hundred times weaker than ordinary electromagnetism) [3], recombinations would be less likely to occur. Partially ionized plasma bodies in the dark sector would therefore be long-lived.
It has to be noted, in this context, that even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1 percent of the particles are ionized can possess the properties of a plasma (i.e. respond to magnetic fields and be highly electrically conductive). 99 percent of matter in the universe of ordinary matter is composed of (partially ionized) plasma. We expect the dark universe to be similarly composed.
From the findings in II and III, above, it follows that a tenuous (i.e. low density) dark plasma halo exists around the visible component of the Earth composed largely of plasmas of dark matter particles which interact weakly with SM particles.
It is proposed that the shape and volume of this halo is dynamic. This is primarily due to 3-body gravitational interactions between the Earth, Moon and the Sun. When the Moon and the Sun are aligned relative to the Earth (as in a solar eclipse), their combined gravitational effects on Earth’s halo will stretch the tail of the halo to extend to the Moon’s own dark matter halo. Since particle density can also change due to these influences, the size of the dark plasma halo also undergoes changes (just like Earth’s visible atmosphere). The shape and size of this dark plasma Earth is therefore dynamical and would be constantly size and shape-shifting much like Earth’s magnetosphere.
The dark halo, with a total mass much lower than the visible Earth (it does not exceed 4 × 10-9 of the Earth’s mass [2]), would be gravitationally coupled to the Earth and corotate with it. Furthermore, just like the Sun (which is a near-sphere composed of plasma) and Jupiter, it would be expected to experience differential rotation; with the maximum rate of rotation in the equatorial region slowing down towards the direction of the poles. A day in the dark halo (as measured by one full rotation of the halo at the relevant latitude) would therefore vary from location to location although the year would be the same as the visible Earth (as the halo is gravitationally coupled to the visible Earth).
It is worth reflecting that the density of dark matter is almost 5 times that of baryonic matter in the universe. The average baryon density in the universe currently is about 10-33 kg cm-3. The average mass density in the interstellar medium (ISM) is 10-27 kg cm-3. This is many orders less than the computed densities of dark matter around Earth, within a radius of 70,000km, of about 10-14 kg cm-3 (as discussed above). This, however, does not stop stars, composed of baryonic matter, to form with vast amounts of almost empty space in between. Similarly we expect dark plasma blobs to form and drift around the Earth even if the average density is low - just as dark matter clouds are believed to drift through the galaxy [16]. Adler [2] claims that we have detected these clumps or blobs in the form of anomalous accelerations of spacecraft during fly-bys and orbits of Earth.
Based on the above analyses, the attributes of the dark biosphere or “Dark Earth” can be estimated as follows:
V. MINIMAL PLASMA CELL-SYSTEM CREATED IN LABORATORY BY SELF-ORGANIZATION
Lozneanu et al [6] have generated “plasma cells” or more specifically, complex space charge configurations (CSCC) that display the attributes of a primitive organism in the laboratory. The CSCC spontaneously emerges when an electrical spark generates a well-located non-equilibrium plasma on the surface of a positively biased electrode within a cold plasma which contains free electrons and atoms in ground, excited and ionized states. The plasma evolves into a stable self-confined luminous, nearly spherical body, attached to the anode. Measurements using electrical probes reveal a positive nucleus surrounded by a nearly spherical boundary or electrical DL (double layer). Within the DL are adjacent space charge layers of opposite charge where electrostatic interactions take place in an electric field. (In this respect, the DL resembles a capacitor.)
Lozneanu et al [6] argue that, similar to biological cells, the electrical boundary of these self-assembled gaseous plasma cells provides an enclosed internal environment that differs from the external environment. The boundary is able to sustain and control operations such as: (i) the acquisition and transformation of energy, (ii) rhythmic exchange of matter across the system boundary and (iii) continual internal transformations of matter. At a critical value of the anode potential, the CSCC detaches from the anode surface and escapes into a free-floating state. After its emergence, the CSCC is able to replicate, by division, and to emit and receive information. Lozneanu et al [6] believe that “the CSCC is potentially able to perform a further biochemical evolution into a ‘living’ cell.”
Using numerical simulations, Tsytovich et al [7] show that complex plasmas may naturally self-organize themselves into stable interacting helical structures that behave like DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) in organic living matter. These structures incorporate “memory marks” allowing for self-duplication, carry out metabolic activities in a thermodynamically open system and exhibit non-Hamiltonian dynamics. Tsytovich et al conclude that these complex self-organized plasma structures possess all the necessary properties to qualify them as candidates for primitive inorganic living matter that may exist in partially ionized plasma in space provided certain conditions allow them to evolve naturally.
Uehara et al [9] have suggested that plasma physics should be considered a part of biological investigation, stating that "Plasma physics can be useful in the investigation of the physical properties of living cells. Concepts like charge neutrality, Debye length, and double layer are very useful to explain the electrical properties of a cellular membrane."
Plasma exhibits a cellular structure as plasma of different densities and temperatures are naturally cordoned-off by electrical double-layers. This provides the closure necessary for minimal plasma cell systems to form.
VI. DARK PLASMA LIFE FORMS
Following from I to V, above, we propose the possibility of minimal plasma cell-systems being generated in Earth’s dark plasma halo through non-linear dynamics and self-organization. Arc discharges (which may arise due to plasma polarizations brought about by a variety of factors; including thermodynamic considerations, particle mass and mobility) will generate plasma spheres or minimal plasma cells spontaneously in the dark plasma halo. This would allow Earth’s dark plasma halo to harbor a dark biosphere of minimal dark plasma cell-systems which would evolve into more complex dark plasma life forms over Earth’s history of more than 4.5Gyr. Some of these life forms would exist in Earth’s atmosphere (within the dark plasma halo). These aerial life forms would have morphologies and behavior similar to life forms proposed by Sagan and Salpeter [10] in Jupiter’s atmosphere.
Sagan and Salpeter [10] proposed that creatures resembling hot air balloons could exist in Jupiter’s atmosphere. They based their hypothesis on the ecology of our oceans where different life forms existed at different depths. At the top, simple life forms such as plankton thrive; at a lower level fish exist which fed on these plankton; below this were larger marine predators which fed on the fish. The Jovian equivalents of these were the "sinkers", "floaters", and "hunters". The "floaters" were characterized as giant gas bags which generated heat through their own metabolism, feeding off sunlight and free molecules in Jupiter’s atmosphere (composed largely of hydrogen and helium). They moved by pumping out helium. The "hunters" were squid-like creatures which used jets of gas to propel themselves and could grow to be many kilometers across.
Just like the gas giants in our Solar System, Earth’s dark plasma halo would not have any hard surface. Hence, plasma life forms would essentially float in an oceanic type atmosphere of tenuous dark plasma.
Earth’s visible biosphere is a thin shell that has approximately a thickness of 2 x 10 km over a surface area of 4πr2 or 5.10 x 108 km2 i.e. a volume of approximately 1025 cm3 (ignoring the negligible effects of the spherical curvature by treating it as flat space). The dark biosphere volume was estimated (see above) to be about 1.44 x 1030 cm3. The volume of the dark biosphere (assuming that all regions of the dark biosphere are habitable as a first approximation) is therefore five orders of magnitude larger than the Earth’s visible biosphere i.e. 105 or 100 thousand times larger in volume than the known (visible) biosphere.
VII. GENERIC MODEL OF A DARK PLASMA LIFE FORM
Based on our model, more complex life forms would be expected to exhibit signature features frequently found in confined plasmas of SM particles in the laboratory, including filamentary currents, vortexes, hot spots (plasmoids) and double layers. These plasma life forms are dissipative structures far from equilibrium. Internally, signature plasma structures form through self-organization and non-linear dynamics. Lozneanu et al [6] have already shown that during the “embryogenesis” of the minimal plasma cell a well-located nucleus develops. It is surrounded by an electrical DL or “Langmuir” sheath which forms an enclosed near-sphere or ovoid. Filamentary electric currents could be expected to form in the electric field between the nucleus and the sheath. A typical primitive plasma life form would therefore be expected to exhibit features as schematically depicted here:
Fig 2: STAGE 1: NUCLEATION PHASE, FRONT VIEW (face-on view):
Schematic Diagram of Internal Structures expected in a Primitive Plasma Life Form
Following this, as in biochemical embryogenesis, we could expect a longitudinal axis or mid-line to form. In the context of a plasma life form, a pair of axial currents would develop. One carries a heavy DM particle (analogous to the MSSM’s heavy chargino) and has a dark negative charge. The other carries a light DM particle (analogous to the MSSM’s heavy chargino) and carries a dark positive charge. Based on basic electromagnetics and consistent with Maxwell’s equations, we would then expect each current to generate an azimuthal magnetic field around it. Due to the magnetic force, at intervals, these currents, moving in opposite directions but carrying opposite charges, will be attracted to each other (based on Biot-Savart Law). They will pinch to form hot spots. Filamentary currents sprout out of the hot spots and connect to other parts of the ovoid, using the paths of least electrical resistance.
Fig 3: STAGE 2: AXIAL PHASE, FRONT VIEW (face-on view):
Axial Currents and Hot Spots form
The hot spots will lie along the axis and emanate radiation of different frequencies (as in a confined plasma of SM particles). Particles moving up along the left negative axial current will be deflected sideways as they are attracted to the right axis. Conversely, particles moving down the positive axial current will be deflected sideways towards the left axis. The combined motions of the particles will impose a clockwise torque (face-on view), generating vortexes within the hot spots. These vortexes will be aligned with the pair of axial currents. The polar vortexes will form facing the sky and the ground if we imagine the ovoid’s longer axis perpendicular to the ground. In this orientation, the axis of the lateral vortexes will be parallel to the ground.
Fig 4: STAGE 3: VORTEX PHASE, SIDE VIEW:
Vortexes form at Hot Spots
Simultaneously, we would expect double helical currents to appear around the axial currents.
Fig 5: STAGE 4: HELICAL PHASE, FRONT VIEW
(face-on view, without other features to avoid over-crowding):
Helical Currents wrap around Axial Currents
In addition, double layers around cells (with plasma of different properties) form within the ovoid. These double layers act like capacitors and have the ability to store (dark) electrical energy. A bank of capacitors is therefore expected to reside in the dark plasma body. As part of its metabolic activity, dark plasma life forms absorb charged particles through their vortexes and store this energy as potential differences within the double layers. The energy can be released gradually or in a burst. The filamentary currents will form circuits that carry dark electrical energy around the dark plasma body and obey Kirchhoff’s and other electric circuit laws.
The hot spots in the dark plasma body are expected to generate (dark) bremstrahlung radiation as the two species of particles skirt each other and (dark) cyclotron radiation as they rotate around the axis of the vortex. These life forms would be expected to emit dark radiation [3] as a result of metabolic activities. As these radiations are absorbed and re-emanated, the bodies of these plasma life forms would behave as near blackbody radiators. In this connection Wien’s Law and Stefan-Boltzman Law in the context of dark radiation would apply to observations of dark plasma life forms.
An estimate of the weight of a plasma life form, the size of a human being, can be made. A man weighing 100kg is approximately 100 liters or 105 cm3 in volume. Furthermore, the human carbon-based body has a density approximately that of water – the surrounding medium. Assuming that plasma life forms have similar densities to the surrounding medium of dark plasma, i.e. a mean density of approximately 10-14 kg cm-3 (as estimated above) and an approximate volume similar to the human body of 105 cm3, the lower bound of the weight of a human-sized bioplasma body is estimated to be: 105 cm3 x (10-14 kg cm-3), multiplied by the gravitational acceleration of 10 ms-2, or approximately 10-8 Newtons. The weight of a plasma life form is therefore expected to be extremely light. The dimensions of a specific plasma life form are expected to be variable to a significant extent when its density increases or falls. The significant variation in size is possible because of the very large inter-particle distance in a low density plasma.
VIII. DETECTING DARK PLASMA LIFE FORMS
Frequency
The dark plasma life forms are expected to possess a plasma frequency, defined as follows:
where “n” is the DM particle density, “e” the dark Coulomb charge, “m” the mass of DM particle and ωdp the dark plasma frequency. As can be seen from the equation above, the plasma frequency is inversely related to the mass of the particle. As DM particles are massive the dark plasma frequency is expected to be generally lower.
Generally, dark plasma is collisionless. However, during certain events when particle density increases the collision rate rises. Some oscillating DM particles within the dark plasma collide with the nuclei and electrons of ordinary matter atoms. This may happen for example, when the dark plasma life form is situated within a medium of air particles.
If the plasma frequency is relatively high, the oscillations or jiggle caused by the positive and negative particles in the dark plasma are expected to collide with nuclei and electrons of SM atoms immersed within the dark plasma. This will generate light (as a result of scintillations), heat (due to the transfer of momentum) and electricity (when electrons get kicked-out of their orbitals during the ionization process, generating currents). The ionization process also generates short-lived ordinary plasma (i.e. composed of ordinary matter particles) which would usually dissipate after a short duration.
When this ordinary plasma is sufficiently dense it can reflect-off microwaves from radars and be detected by them temporarily and/or intermittently. The heat can be detected with infrared cameras and calorimeters. The light can be detected by cameras (if visible) and analyzed using spectrometers and bolometers. The frequencies generated by the ordinary plasma are expected to be mostly in the microwave segment of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is associated with electron oscillations in the ordinary plasma. These microwaves can generate heat in living tissue and anomalous sounds within the human cranium if the observer is within or at a near distance from the microwave source.
A plasma life form within the Eart