INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF BRAZIL
The Federative Republic of Brazil, commonly known as Brazil contains 26 states and 1 federal district; therein is located the nation’s capital, Brasilia. Brazil is the largest country in South America. Independence was gained on September 7, 1822; although formal recognition did not occur until 1825. At the writing of this book Brazil’s population was roughly 200 million. Most of the population lives within 200 miles of the coastline.
The Aikana or Aicana Indians (also known as Corumbiara, Massaca, Munde’, Tubarao) live in western Amazonian lowlands in Rondonia State, Brazil. The name Rondonia is a tribute Candido Rondon, the person responsible for setting down telegraph lines in the western border of the Amazon. They speak the Aikana language. Rondonia was once a vast and rich rainforest, but much of the area has been deforested. It is located in Northwest Brazil.
The Aikana use the same name to identify themselves and their language.
The Aikana do not live on their traditional lands. In 1970 the Brazilian Government transferred the Aikana from an area in the Guapore River to the Tubarao-Latunde Indigenous Territory. This area contains poor eroded soil. They were previously sustained by rubber extraction. Falling prices for this substance has had an adverse effect on their ability to sustain themselves and their culture. There 328 Aikana Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
The Akuntu Indians (also known as the Akunt’su and Akunsu) live in a small section of rainforest within the Omere’ Indigenous Territory in Rondonia State. Their land is surrounded by large cattle ranches and soya plantations both are a major cause of deforestation of the rainforest of Rondonia. Their language is part of the Tupari Linguistic Family. The Akuntu have endured mass slaughters and general violence. Cattle ranchers massacred Akuntu in the 1980s.
There are on 5 known Akuntu Indians left (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org). They live in one small community consisting of two malocas (communal houses) made from straws. They are in fear for their lives, not knowing if they’re going to be victimized.
The Akuntu are quite susceptible to introduced diseases (diseases whose source is from non-Indians, external). Their language and tribe may disappear from this Earth. Understandably, the remaining Akuntu have a strong distrust of outsiders. In the past homes were destroyed and Akuntu Indians chased and gunned down in cold blood.
The Amanaye’ Indians (known spelled Amanaie’ or Amanaje’, and also known as Ararandeuara) are an indigenous people who live in North-eastern Brazil near the municipality of Sao Domingos do Capim in Para State, located in northern Brazil. Originally, the Amanaye’ were inhabitants of the Pindare’ River section of Maranhao State. Their ancestral language is extinct. Today they speak Portuguese.
The Amanaye’ were first contacted in the 1750s. They refused integration into villages and evaded European missionaries. Later, they struck a deal with Father David Fay, a Jesuit missionary working within the Guajajara people in Maranhao State, located in north-eastern Brazil.
The Guajajara were traditional enemies of the Amanaye’. In spite of this, Father Fay was able to convince the Amanaye’ to live with the Guajajara.
In 1873 the Amanaye’ killed Candido de Heremence the village missionary, also killed was a Belgian engineer that was in the area. The Amanaye’ continued to fight against neighbouring peoples.
The Amanaye’ killed a group of Tembe’ and Turiwara. These Indian tribes were considered ‘tame Indians’. In response, the President of Para State armed the tame Indians with weapons and ammunitions so they could defend themselves from the attacking Amanaye’.
The Amanaye’ Reservation was created in 1941 for the estimated 200 people. There are 131 Amanaye’ Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
The Amondawa Indians (also known as the Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau or Urueu-Wau-Wau, Bocas Negras, Urupain and Black Mouths) speak a Tupi-Guarani language. They inhabit six villages in Rondonia State. They are hunter gatherers and have tattoos around their mouths.
The Amondawa were initially contacted by FUNAI in 1981, in Alta Lidia, known today as Commandante Ary. Later, introduced diseases and brutal attacks by non-Indians drastically reduced their numbers. The Amondawa language is part of the Tupi-Guarani Linguistic Family.
FUNAI is the National Indian Foundation of the Brazilian Government. It is responsible for instituting and carrying out policies pertaining to indigenous Peoples. FUNAI maps, helps to demarcate, and protects lands inhabited by Indigenous peoples. It is also responsible for the prevention of land intrusions by outsiders.
FUNAI was previously call the SPI (Indian Protection Service) founded by Marshal Candido Rondon in 1910.
In the early 1990s the Amondawa population began to rise. Although the government created the Uru-Eu-Uaw-Uaw Indigenous Territory to protect the Indigenous tribes, people affiliated with the mining and logging companies forcefully entered their territory in spite of the law only permitting indigenous peoples to live in there.
The Amondawa Indians have no concept of time. No one is assigned an age, and words pertaining to the passing of time do not exist. In the past individuals changed their names in relation to their life stage. There are 113 Amondawa Indians (Table of Indigenous Peoples, Socioambiental.org).
The Anambe’ Indians were first spotted by non-Indians in 1842, living on lands situated on the left bank of the Rio Locantins in Para State. In the Tupi-Guarani language the word Anambe’ pertains to the identification of various species of birds. In 1850 there were an estimated 650 Anambe’. Diseases and the stress and trauma of brutality and mistreatment by non-Indians have lowered their population considerably. There are 131 Anambe’ Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
The Anambe’ language is in jeopardy of being flushed out, replaced by Portuguese, especially amongst the young tribal members. Intermarriage and the mixing with other Indian groups have affected population statistics.
In 1982 FUNAI transferred the Anambe’ to the Indian Reserve of Tembe’ located on the Rio Guama.
The Apalai Indians (also known as Aparai, Appirois, Apalali, and Apalais) live in the Tumucumaque Indian Park and the Para de Leste Indian Area. In the early to mid-1700s they lived in an area near the Jari and Oiapoque Rivers. The Apalai speak a Carib language. The tribe identifies the Makapai and Inumi as subgroups. Apalai Indian populations include 466 in Para State, Brazil (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org), 40 in Guiana Francesca (Eliane Camargo, 2011; ibid) and 10 in Suriname (Eliane Camargo, 2011; ibid).
Beginning in the early 1900s contacts with outsiders increased, resulting in a drastic reduction in the Apalai population, resulting in tribal members to regroup, merge, and then move to another locale. The Apalai were previously sedentary slash-and-burn farmers, hunters and gatherers. Today they are under the control of outsiders.
Contemporary Apalai villages are located on the banks of Paru de Leste.
Apalai marriages are between Bilateral Cross-Cousins (BCCM). BCCM is a form of direct exchange marriage where two separate lineages or families establish long-term or permanent agreements and exchanges through marriage.
A cross-cousin is a cousin from a parent’s opposite-sex sibling (maternal uncle’s child, paternal aunt’s child).
A parallel-cousin is a cousin from a parent’s same-sex sibling (paternal uncle’s child, maternal aunt’s child).
Residences include a nuclear family. Co-wives also live in the residence but maintain separate kitchens.
Co-wives can only occur in polygamous marriages. A co-wife is another wife, or one of the other wives of a woman’s husband.
Traditional Apalai religion includes belief in differing primal beings, creators, and originators of social norms. The use of shamans, herbs, food taboos, prohibitions in behaviour, and sexual abstinence are used for curing purposes.
The Apiaca Indians (or Apiaka) live in areas within Amazonas, Mato Grosso, and Para States. They speak a Tupi-Guarani language. Their language is nearly; today only a handful of persons speak and understand the Apiaca language. The young speak Portuguese or another Indian language. An attempted restoration of the Apiaca language by tribal members has been a failure.
Amazonas State is the largest of the 26 Brazilian States and the Federal District. It is located in the North-western corner of Brazil. Mato Grosso State is located in Western Brazil. Para State is located in Northern Brazil.
The Apiaca were previously a warlike people. Today they are a remnant of what they used to be. They exercised retaliatory warfare, headhunting, and anthropophagic behaviour against neighbouring tribes.
The Apiaca practice slash-and-burn agriculture, hunting, gathering, and fishing.
Traditionally the Apiaca believed that a healthy person’s soul is attached to him or her; diseases occur when the soul becomes un-attached to the body.
Contact with non-Indians, rubber extraction, and introduced diseases have drastically reduced the population of the Apiaca, estimated once be several thousand. There are 844 Apiaca Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
The Apinaje’ Indians (also spelled Apinajes, also known as Apinale’) live in the far north of Tocantins State. They speak a Macro-Je language, however, Portuguese is ever-present. Apinaje’ are animists.
Tocantins State was formed in 1988, making it the youngest Brazilian State. Tocantins lies in the interior of Brazil, away from any shoreline.
The Apinaje’ have a sophisticated social organization consisting of complex ceremonies, ritual groups, and relatively populous villages. Traditionally they have been hunters and gatherers. Other activities include subsistence farming (women), men fell trees and plant rice.
The Apinaje’ suffered a horrendous decrease in population, estimated at over four thousand in the 19th century it fell to 150 by 1930. In a reverse trend, from the mid-20th century a speedy process of population recovery occurred, tripling from the late 1970s to the late 1990s. There are 2,412 Apinaje’ Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
The Apurina Inians live in Amazonas, Mato Grosso, and Rondonia States, along the Purus River and its tributaries. They speak a Mapure-Aruak language, and identify themselves as ‘Popingare’ or ‘Kangite’.
The Apurina inhabit 27 indigenous lands, 20 of these have been officially demarcated and registered. A few of their lands have not been officially recognized; many Apurina live outside of their indigenous lands.
Frequent contacts between Apurina and non-Indians began during the 18th century, a result of the rubber extraction. Rubber estates were typically ruthless to the Apurina, engaging in acts of extermination and wholesale slaughter, torture, slavery, and land battles.
Apurina believe they form two divided nations, the Xoaporruneru and Metumanetu. Marriage between one member of a nation with another is considered normal, never two individuals from the same nation. Apurina believe that the latter is equivalent to incest. There are 8300 Apurina Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
The Arapaso Indians (also known as Arapaco, Araspaso, and Konea) speak an eastern Tukanoan language. They live in São Gabriel, Iauarete in Amazonas State. There are 414 Arapaso Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
The Arara (also known as the Arara do Para) live in Para State. They speak a Carib language.
The Arara were previously known to have been brave warriors who kept body parts of their dead enemies as trophies, often using these trophies to make flutes and necklaces; scalps were used for other purposes. They were also known for their hospitality unto non-Indians and their social skills.
During the late 19th century the Arara were harassed and intimidated by rubber tappers. Today their biggest problem is the Belo Monte Hydroelectric dam.
From the very early stages of constructing this dam massive pollution in the form of Brazilian red Earth (mud and dirt) into the Xingu River was apparent. Arara were forced to drink and to cook with muddy water. The surrounding area consists of virgin forest with no well water.
The Xingu River (also called Rio Xingu) is over 1200 miles long. It is located in Northern Brazil and flows from the tropical savannah of Mato Grosso State in a northerly direction into the Amazon.
Arara face other problems, settlers and loggers transmit new diseases and they disturb game animals, making it more difficult to hunt.
The Arara were granted two official territories to live in, the Arara Indigenous Territory and the Cachoeira Seca do Iriri Indigenous Territory. There are 363 Arara Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
The Arara, Mato Grosso Indians (also known as Arara do Beirado, Arara do Rio Branco) live between the Branco and Guariba Rivers. They have been subjected to persecution and harassment resulting from the rubber extracting within and around their lands. More recently, they had to deal with illegal logging on their lands.
When the rubber extracting industry took a slump settlers colonized more of their lands. The Arara, Mato Grosso was left landless and jobless. These people had to fight stringently to for legal recognition. There are 391 Arara, Mato Grosso (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid). The traditional language of the Arara, Mato Grosso is extinct and unclassified.
The Arara Shawadawa Indians (also known as Arara do Acre, Ararawa, Shawanaua, Xawanaua,) live in Acre State. Most live in the Arara Indigenous area of the Humaita Igarape. The area is considered to be rich in biological diversity, flowing with planet and animal species.
Acre State is located in the northern region of Brazil.
Having been ridiculed for speaking their Panoan language, today there are only a few persons who speak the language fluently. Elders stopped transmitting their language to young people.
The Arara Shawadawa suffered immensely from the manufacture of rubber, exploitation, destruction of culture, major loss of ancestral lands, and incursion by non-Indian hunters into their territory. They killed off large numbers of game animals. There are 545 Arara Shawadawa Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
The Arawete’ Indians (also known as Araute’, Bide) are hunter gatherers, who live in one village in the southern region of the Para State, located on the banks of the Igarape’ Ipixuna, a small tributary of the Xingu River. This area is part of the Arawete’ Indigenous Territory.
Traditional Arawete’ believe that their people live on the edge of the Earth. They also believe that reciting your name out loud is a bad omen. If you ask an Arawete’ what his or her name is chances are a third party will answer your question.
The name ‘Arawete’ was forced upon them by a FUNAI woodsman. They call themselves ‘Bide’ meaning human beings, or people. They speak a Tupi-Guarani language. Most adults speak one language many of the young speak some Portuguese. Over half of the tribe is under the age of 12. There are 450 Arawete’ Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
The Arawete’ may be a remnant of the Pacaja people who escaped into the forest to keep clear of missionaries.
For the past century Arawete’ history has been plagued by the fighting with other tribes and migrations and displacement; other problems include logging companies and gold prospectors.
In the early 1970s following the opening of the Trans-Amazonian Highway the Brazilian government began a strategy of ‘Attraction and Pacification’ of Indians living within the affected areas (middle Xingu region).
FUNAI officers removed sickly, weakened, diseased Arawete’ Indians from the banks of the Xingu to the upper Ipixuna. The forced march through thick jungle resulted in the death of 30 Arawete’. There are 450 Arawete’ Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
The Arawete’ are known for their talented production of the bow, shaman’s rattle, and women’s clothing. They grow their own cotton and weave the cloth to make clothing.
The Arikapu Indians (also known as Maxubi) have traditionally lived in southern Rondonia State. They speak an endangered Jabuti language, and use the name ‘Arikapu’ to describe themselves. Today only two elders speak the language, and it’s not being transmitted to the young. There are 34 Arikapu Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
Although the Jabuti languages are similar to each other (Arikapu and Djeoromitxi are linguistically related), they are considered unrelated to non-Jabuti languages.
Prior to contact with non-Indians there were likely several thousand Arikapu who spoke their language. The Portuguese language is replacing their language. Both the Arikapu and Djeoromitxi lived in communal-style houses, fished, hunted, collected fruits and insects, and used slash-and-burn agriculture. The deceased were buried in the house.
Arikapu have been decimated by introduced diseases, being forced to live and work under horrible conditions, rubber extraction, and transfer.
The Ashaninka Indians (also spelled Ashaninca) live in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest and in Acre State, Brazil. Their name means ‘kinsfolk’.
The names ‘Campa’ or ‘Kampa’ used to identify the Ashaninka are considered quite hostile and derogatory by tribal members.
The majority of Ashaninka live in Peru, a minority live in Brazil. They are considered the second largest indigenous group within the Peruvian Amazon, estimated at between 25 thousand and 45 thousand in number, a few hundred live on the Brazilian side of the border. In Peru, only the Quechua outnumber them.
The Ashaninka speak a pre-Andean Arawak language composed of several dialects. Tribal members tend to speak only one language. Children that are sent to school must learn Spanish.
The Ashaninka have faced quite difficult adversities. Serious encroachment into their territories, displacement, settlers and squatters, hunters, logging companies, oil production, illegal roads, the rubber extraction industry, enslavement, introduced diseases, cocaine production and trafficking, victimization resulting from the war between the Peruvian Military and Gorilla groups, in particular the Shining Path (a communist movement). Starting in the early 1980s, Ashaninka were forced to join the Shining Path others were held as captives.
The Ashaninka along with other indigenous groups, and international human rights organizations are demanding justice and recognition of their human rights. Many Ashaninka communities have been wiped out; at one time an estimated 80 percent of Ashaninka had been decimated.
The Ashaninka believe in a ‘great hero’ named Avireri, believed to be an incredible transformer, having transformed humans into animals, rivers, plants and mountains. The sun and the moon are believed to be good spirits. Evil spirits are called Kamari. Shamans are intermediaries between humans and supernatural beings. Ashaninka believe that following death a good person will join the good spirits if he or she was good during life. They believe that most souls are evil. Evil souls turn into evil ghosts, returning to the village and attacking its people. Abandonment of a village usually occurs following the death of a person.
The Assurini do Tocantins Indians live on the lower Tocantins River close to the town of Tucurui, within the Trocara Indigenous Territory in Para state. Prior to the early 20th century, there were two groups, the Assurini do Tocantins was living in an area between the Tocantins and the Rio Pacaja, a tributary of the Xingu River. The other group, named the Assurini do Xingu (pronounced Shin-goo), lived on the Rio Pacava. The Assurini do Xingu came into contact with non-Indians in the early 1970s.
Indians living on the Xingu have quite similar beliefs, superstitions, festivals, rites of passage, and ceremonies; though they speak different languages. The Xingu river basin contains 15 distinct tribes who speak 8 different languages.
The Assurini do Tocantins speak a Tupi-Guarani language. The word ‘Assurini’ means red. The word ‘Xingu’ signifies the river they live beside.
The Assurini do Tocantins language is being replaced by Portuguese, particularly children and the young.
Problems for the Assurini do Tocantins began in the late 19th century with acts of violence between them and the settlers. Two decades later, commercial Brazil nut production created another problem. In the 1960s the Assurini do Tocantins were expelled from villages by the Ararawa Indians.
In order to improve the transport of Brazil nuts from Maraba to Belem the Brazilian authorities decided that a railroad should be built; hence the Tocantins Railroad. The route of the railway would cut through the territory of the Assurini and Parakana Indians.
Outraged, the Assurini do Tocantins tried to coordinate attacks upon the intruders.
Starting in 1961, with the operation of the Belem-Brasilia Highway, South-eastern Para state witnessed a boom in economic activity and development. In addition, a hydroelectric project was established on the Tocantins at Tucurui to power mining and other industries. This resulted in a huge influx of settlers and entrepreneurs.
The Assurini do Tocantins are literally encircled by large estates, and a major highway that cuts through their reserve. Game animals are scarce, inroads, and invaders are a constant menace.
Traditionally, Assurini do Tocantins loved game meat, but fishing has become a necessity. Hunting is done with rifles. Often-times there’s not enough, or no meat to eat. The Assurini do Tocantins have become dependent upon handouts from FUNAI.
Assurini do Tocantins believe that Mahira ‘their old grandfather’ created humans and is responsible for establishing order on Earth. The Shaman’s primary role is that of a healer who removes objects in the patient’s body, placed therein by a supernatural being that resides in the bush.
Population statistics for Assurini do Tocantins are variable, from a low of 150 to more than 500. There are 516 Assurini do Tocantins Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
There are 165 Assurini do Xingu Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org). They live in Para State. Contact with non-Indians resulted in introduced diseases that decimated their population.
The Atikum Indians (also known as Huamue, Uamue) live in 20 villages within the Atikum Indigenous Land located in Bahia and Pernambuco States, near the city of Carnaubeira da Penha. The Atikum are referred to as ‘the civilized Indians of the Uma Hills’. Nevertheless, they must routinely deal with the nuisance of illegal settlers and farmers.
Today virtually all Atikum speak Portuguese and for the most part have no memory of a previous language, with the exception of a handful of words. The ‘Atikum language’ is extinct.
Atikum like to hunt, using dogs and firearms. Dogs are also used to guard homes. Homes are made of clay or bricks, less common are straw-made homes. Planted and wild fruits are eaten readily.
The Atikum chief represents the community in its interactions with non-Indians. The shaman is responsible for maintaining the health of the community. This political system came about through coercion by the non-Indian establishment. There are 7,929 Atikum Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid).
The Ava-Canoeiro Indians (also known as Cara Preta {black face}, canoeiro {canoeman}, Carijo) live in Goias, Minas Gerais, and Tocantins States. They speak a Tupi-Guarani language.
Goias State is located in Central Brazil; its name comes from a Brazilian Indian tribe. Minsas Gerais State is the second most populous Brazilian state. It is located in the Northern most part of South-eastern Brazil.
Presently there are two groups of Ava-Conoeiro, one group lives in the Ava-Conoero Indigenous Land (Goias State); the other group lives in the Boto Velho village, in the Inawebohona Indigenous Land, in the Canoana Indigenous Post, and in the Araguaia Park Indigenous Land (Tocantins State). The two groups have not been together in over a century, making it quite difficult or impossible for them to be merged into one community. Each has formed new cultural traits to adapt to the harsh living conditions; cattle ranchers, settlers, hunters, violent conflicts, introduced diseases and lack of health care planning, killings by non-Indians, dissection of their lands, and transfer. Contact with non-Indian society began in the early 1970s. Some Ava-Conoeiro Indians are still isolated. There are 25 Ava-Conoeiro Indians (Siasi/Sedsi, 2012; ibid).
The Awa Indians (also known as Awa-Guaja, Guaja) have been labelled by many as the most endangered group of people in the world. They live in the eastern Amazonian forests in Brazil, and speak a Tupi-Guarani language. They refer to themselves as ‘Awa’, meaning man, human, or person. There are 365 Awa Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; Socioambiental.org).
Beginning in the early 1800s the Awa have had to face violence, territorial invasions, cattle ranchers, the clearing of forests, expansionist settlers, and a railway. Forest clearing, settling, and intrusive construction cause the valuable forest animals to flee the area, thereby making it more difficult for Awa to hunt. Hunting is an integral part of Awa life, not only for food, it is also an integral part of their culture. The Awa feel an intimacy towards the forest; they learn to acquire a mental map of it.
“If you destroy the forest, you destroy us too.” (Blade, an Awa tribe member; Survival Intenational.org)
“The outsiders {non-Indians} are coming, and it’s like our forest is being eaten up.” (Takia, an Awa tribe member; ibid)
“If my children go hungry I can just go into the forest and I can find them food.” (Peccary, an Awa tribe member; ibid)
Awa who have managed to live deep in the forest hunt by using traditional means long bows and arrows. Awa are talented hunters, using stealth and accuracy to kill game animals. They love their traditional ways; they don’t want outsiders forcing them to abandon their culture and traditions.
The government of Brazil often drags its feet when it comes to aiding Brazilian Indians, or when confronted by the logging industry, powerful ranchers, or settlers.
Although in 1982 the Government of Brazil was granted a loan of 900 million USD from the World Bank and European Union for the purpose of demarcating and protecting specified Indians lands, it took 20 years of pressure (Survival International, Forest Peoples Programme) to induce them into demarcating the Awa lands. Nevertheless, during the 1980s a lengthy railway 550 miles (900 km) was built. It cut into Awa lands. Thereafter, an outbreak of malaria and flu struck the Awa.
The official demarcation of Awa lands did not end the killings and invasions into their lands, or the logging.
A publicized case in point shows us how violent the outsiders can be. In 2011, illegal loggers burned an 8 year-old girl alive. Her crime, she accidentally strayed from her village. Worse yet, the brutal murder occurred inside Maranhao State, a designated protected area. Maranhao is located in North-eastern Brazil.
In late June of 2013 the Brazilian Military sent hundreds of soldiers and armoured vehicles into the Amazon to contend against illegal logging. The military managed to close down 8 saw mills, including equipment and machines, etc. Often-times large-scale sustained pressure upon government bodies works.
“Brazil has taken a promising first step towards saving the World’s most threatened tribe.” (Stephen Cory, Director of Survival International; Survival International.org)
“The invaders must be made to leave our forest.” (Awa tribe member; ibid)
Awa men and women are permitted to have consecutive marriages. Awa follow an animistic-style religion. They believe that the spirits of their ancestors and other beings live within a heavenly paradise.
As in agreement with local tribal tradition, and archaeological evidence, contemporary Aweti Indians (also spelled Aueti and also known as Aueto, Awytyza) possibly arrived in the region of the headwaters of the Xingu River now referred to as ‘Upper Xingu’ sometime in the 17th or 18th century,. Therein, they came into contact with a complex society consisting of different tribes. The Aweti speak a Tupian language. They call themselves ‘Awytyza’.
Ernest European documentation of the Aweti didn’t begin until the late 19th century. Thereafter, for several decades there was scant contact between the Europeans and the Aweti. Sadly, the contact that occurred resulted in harmful introduced diseases that the Aweti Indians and their neighbours no immunity to.
By the mid-20th century there were only 2 dozen Aweti left. Following the establishment of the Xingu Indigenous Park the Aweti and neighbouring tribes were offered better medical care. There are 195 Awetu (Ipeax, 2011; Socioambiental.org)
Aweti villages are arranged in a circle-fashion. Homes are large and built around a large dominant plaza. The plaza serves as a place where social activities occur, and for men to socialize and smoke.
In spite of the severe hardships (diseases, demographic loss and land shifting) faced by the Aweti they have managed to escape extinction, maintaining their homogeneity and distinctiveness. But their culture and language are under persistent threat due to increasing contact with Brazilian society. The young tend to be more readily affected by this threat.
Aweti believe in supernatural beings, shamans have the ability to interact with good or evil spirits. Death entails passage into another form of existence. The deceased is washed, decorated, and then buried in the center of the village.
The Bakairi Indians live in the municipality in Paratinga and Nobres in the central part of Mato Grosso state in the Bakairi Indigenous lands and Santana.
There are 930 Bakairi Indians (Siasi/Sesai, 2012; ibid). Be aware the Bakairi suffered horrendous epidemics causing their population to drastically drop. They speak a Karib language, but many members speak Portu