Building Soils for Better Crops Sustainable Soil Management by Fred Magdoff and Harold Van Es - HTML preview

ammonium sulfate, 228

buildup and maintenance system, 237–238

Anasazi, 58

anhydrous ammonia, 209, 210, 221

c

animal enterprises, 206

animal farms: and compaction, 273; and fertilizer, 220; and

calcium: application of, 66, 81; and CEC, 238, 239; deficiency

nutrient cycling, 70–74; and nutrient management, 273; and

of, 228; and sludge, 94; and sodic soils, 66, 67, 194, 228,

organic matter management, 96; and reduced tillage, 183;

233; and soil tests, 243–248. See also gypsum

aquatic crops, 55

calcium carbonate. See lime/limestone

aquatic plants. See algae

calcium sulfate. See gypsum

arid and semiarid regions, 65–66, 260; and high-pH soils, 237;

Canavalia, 105

irrigation in, 193; and residue management, 92; soil health

carbon: forms of, 12; ratio of, to nitrogen ( See C:N ratio); in

in, 266

soils, 19

atrazine, 233

carbon cycle, 18–19

azotobacter, 40

carbon dioxide: release of, 18–19

case studies, 99–100, 113–114, 126–128, 139, 150–151, 185–186

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catch crops. See cover crops

mycorrhizal fungi, 40; and nitrogen, 84; and nutrient losses,

cation exchange capacity, 227, 229–230, 243, 263

222; and nutrient management, 205; and organic matter,

CEC. See cation exchange capacity

30, 102; and parasitic nematodes, 81, 109; and pest control,

charcoal. See black carbon

81, 103; planting, 108–110; risks of, 111; selection of, 103;

chelates, 15, 205

as soil protection, 54; termination of, 110–111; timing of,

chemical contamination, 65–67

108–109; types of, 103–107; value of, 269; and water, 102,

chemical elements, 13

103; and weed suppression, 103, 175

chisel plow: and compaction, 162 (table 15.1); and tillage, 156,

cowpeas, 103, 104, 127

165, 176 (table 16.1), 177

cranberries, 4

clay soil, 14, 30, 31, 167–168, 199–200

crimson clover, 84, 102, 104, 111, 127, 186

climate, 55; and erosion, 153, 154; and humidity, 67, 135; and

crop farms: and nutrient cycling, 70–74; and organic matter,

temperature, 24, 105, 262

96

C:N ratio, 93–94, 95, 106, 271

crop-livestock farms: and compaction, 273; and nutrient

coastal flooding: areas of, 266

cycling, 71–72; and organic matter, 269; and soil

Colonial era, 27

management, 273

community-supported agriculture, 99, 206

crop residues: and aggregation, 92; amounts of, 89–90;

compaction, 161–171; and aggregation, 55; and drainage,

application of, 94–95; benefits of, 179; burning of, 90; in

198; effects of, 31, 63–64, 65; and equipment, 61, 62–63,

case study, 114; and C:N ratio, 93–94; and compaction, 162;

166–167; and germination, 60; and pest control, 81;

decomposition of, 10, 92–93, 95; and erosion, 156; as fuel

preventing, 164–170; remedies for, 162 (table 15.1); and

source, 90, 91, 156; importance of, 93; as mulch, 90–91;

roots, 52, 63–64; and soil moisture, 53–54, 195; surface,

removal of, 90; as soil protection, 54, 81; value of, 269

60–62, 194–195; and tillage, 183

crop rotations, 115–124; in case study, 99–100, 113–114,

companion crops, 83

126–128, 139; and compaction, 168–169; and conservation

compost, 141–149; in case study, 150–151; and disease

management, 84; and crop yields, 116; and erosion, 155, 157;

suppression, 147; income from, 142, 150; and organic

examples of, 120–124, 128; and finances, 118–119; flexibility

matter, 30; and pest control, 81; recipe for, 142; as

in, 120, 121; and grain crops, 272; and labor, 118–119; and

residue, 92; and water supply, 148. See also fertilizer; soil

mycorrhizal fungi, 40; and nitrogen, 115; on organic farms,

amendments

123; and organic matter, 28, 30; and pest problems, 31, 81;

compost barns, 130

and plant diseases, 119; principles of, 119–120; and root

compost exchanges, 207

growth, 115; and soil organic matter, 116–118; value of, 269;

conservation management, 81–84, 82, 155–160. See also soil

and water quality, 118; and water storage, 195

management

crop sensing, 218

conservation planter, 163; and tillage, 178, 179

crop yields, 116, 187, 236, 275

conservation tillage, 176. See also tillage

cropland, 27

contamination, xii, 66, 94, 153, 194, 201, 202, 266, 274

Crotalaria, 105

contour planting, 159, 269

crown vetch, 105, 111, 274

controlled drainage, 201–202

crusting. See surface crusting

controlled traffic, 169–170, 272

CSA. See community-supported agriculture

conventional tillage, 176–179

cutworm, 111

copper deficiency, 229

Cornell Soil Health Test, 263–264, 265

D

cover crops, 101–111; in case study, 113–114, 126–128, 185–

dairy farms: in cold climates, 273; and cooperation, 96, 207;

186; and compaction, 103, 162, 168–169; and conservation

and manure, 130, 132, 137; and nutrient cycling, 71, 73

management, 84; and erosion, 156–157; interseeding of,

damping-off disease, 111

109–110; management of, 107–111; mixtures of, 108; and

dark earths. See black carbon

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Darwin, Charles, xiii

F

decomposition. See organic matter, decomposition of

farm machinery. See equipment

deep tillage, 52, 165–166. See also tillage

farm specialization, 70, 72

deficit irrigation, 196

farmer case studies. See case studies

denitrification, 19, 136, 194, 198, 213–214

Faulkner, Edward, x

diammonium phosphate, 209, 210

feeds: and nutrient cycling, 72, 73

disease management, 85

fertigation, 192

disk plow, 177, 178 (fig. 16.4)

fertilizer: application of, 28; applying, 210–212, 220; cost

disking. See plowing and disking

of, 211; grade of, 212; incorporation of, 212; and nutrient

dispersion, 54, 59, 156

cycling, 70–74; and nutrient management, 205; use of,

ditching, 198–199

207–212. See also compost

diversion ditches, 158–159

field capacity, 65

drain tile, 198

field operations: and drainage, 198; timing of, 166, 167, 184

drainage, 193–194, 196–202; and compaction, 198; and

field peas, 104

denitrification, 198; and field operations, 198; importance

field variability, 251

of, 4; problems of, 200–202; and runoff, 198; system types,

field worm. See earthworms

198–200. See also water management

filter strips, 159

drought stress, 51, 64, 80, 154 (fig. 14.2), 195, 262

flooding, xii, 3, 57, 200, 201

dual wheels, 167

Food Security Act, 200

Dust Bowl, 55

forage crops: and erosion, 157; and nutrient cycling, 71; in

E

rotations, 117–118, 220, 222, 272

forage legume, 205, 206, 220, 223

E. coli, 136

forage radish: and compaction, 103; as cover crop, 107, 108

earthworms, 261; importance of, 41–42; increasing, 27;

(fig. 10.4), 186

secretions of, 17

forest soil, 29

ecological corridors, 160

fossil fuels, xi, xii

ecological management, 81–84, 155–160. See also soil

management

free hydrogen, 17

electrical conductivity, 233

frost tillage, 183

energy use: and fertilizer, 211, 215; and irrigation, 190, 193

fruit farms, 274–275

environmental information systems, 218

fuel oil spills, 5

equipment, xiii, 61, 62–63, 166–167

full-field tillage. See conventional tillage

erosion, 57–60, 153–160; and aggregation, 55; and air quality,

fungi: amounts of, 39; ratio of, to bacteria, 39, 265–266; role

59; controlling, 155–160; and crop yields, 16–17, 26; and

of, 40. See also microorganisms; mycorrhizal fungi; soil

Dust Bowl, 55; and organic matter, 5–6, 26; and soil health,

organisms

260; and soil moisture, 53–54; and soil texture, 57; and

Fusarium: and nematodes, 41

tillage, 26–27, 59–60; and water quality, 58; and wind,

58–59. See also runoff

g

ethanol, xii, 91

garden worm. See earthworms

ethylene, 80

geographic information systems, 251

eutrophication. See algae

global positioning systems, 170, 251

evapotranspiration, 196

global warming, 18, 19, 214

Evelyn, John, xiii

grain crop farms, 272–273

exchangeable hydrogen, 253

grapevines, 274

extra-floral nectar, 78

grass tetany, 227

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grassed waterways, 159

J

grasses: and compaction, 168; as cover crops, 106–107; and

jasmonate, 80

manure, 134; and nitrogen, 108, 262; and organic matter,

Jenny, Hans, 23, 91

27, 116, 117

green manures. See cover crops

K

greenhouse gas, 19, 198

K-mag. See potassium–magnesium sulfate

grid sampling, 251

Kenagy, Peter, 113–114

Groff, Steve, 185–186

growing season: length of, 24

l

gypsum, 194; and aggregation, 163, 228, 239; application of,

land availability, xi

211; and sodic soils, 233

landslides, 57, 59, 160

H

late spring nitrate test (LSNT), 218, 241

leaching: of bases, 230; and manure, 134, 135, 202; of nitrate,

habitat conservation. See conservation management

133, 202, 209, 222; of nutrients, 4, 11, 14, 69, 72, 74, 101,

hairy vetch: as cover crop, 84, 102, 104, 108, 122, 222; and

205; of pesticides, 18, 51, 194; of phosphorus, 214–215; of

nematodes, 109; and nitrogen, 220; and organic matter, 26;

salts, 193, 233

and winter, 103

least-limiting water range, 64

herbicides, 175, 178, 182, 233

legumes: and bacteria, 39; and biochar, 11; as cover crops, 40,

high-P soils, 224

92, 103–106; and manure, 134; and nitrogen, 72, 108, 115,

high-quality soil. See soil health

220; and nitrogen fixation, 39, 40, 103, 215; and organic

Hitt, Alex and Betsy, 126–128

matter, 27, 116

horizontal drains, 160

lichens, 41

Horse-Hoeing Husbandry, A, x

lignin: decomposition of, 25, 26, 40, 93, 143; in residues, 92,

humic acid, 17 (fig. 2.7)

93, 101; role of, 40; and soil health, 271

humus: and CEC, 14, 231; production of, 88, 89, 93, 141; value

lime/limestone: application of, 208, 211, 212, 251, 275; benefits

of, 10, 12, 17, 91, 204 (fig. 18.1). See also organic matter

of, 6, 94, 228, 229; as carbon, 12; and CEC, 253; and soil pH,

hydrologic cycle, 20

227, 231–233, 238, 253; and soil testing, 244, 247, 251

hyphae, 24, 40. See also roots

litter: incorporation of, 29

livestock farms. See animal farms

I

living mulch. See intercropping

Illinois Soil Nitrogen Test (ISNT), 242

local partnerships, 207

induced systemic resistance, 79–80

lower stalk nitrate test, 218

infiltration capacity, 53, 57, 162, 198

insects in soil, 42. See also pest management

M

integrated pest management, 81; in case study, 99–100

macronutrients, 13

intercropping: in case study, 100; of cover crops, 110, 111 (fig.

magnesium: deficiency of, 227–228

10.8); as erosion control, 58

manganese deficiency, 229

iron deficiency, 229

manure, 129–137; analysis, 132; application of, 133–136; in

irrigation: in case study, 99; and chemical contamination,

case study, 139; characteristics of, 131–132; decomposition

66; and crop yields, 187; and environment, 193–194; and

of, 92, 95; handling, 130–131; injection of, 135 (fig. 12.2),

international relations, 194; methods of, 191–192; and

136, 158, 183; and nitrogen, 95; as nutrient source, 209–210;

salinization, 193–194; and surface compaction, 194–195;

nutrients in, 70–73; and organic matter, 30, 132; problems

and sustainability, 194. See also water management

of, 136–137; testing, 205; value of, 129

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manure worm. See earthworms

213–225; maximum return to, 217–218; and no-till, 180;

manures: application of, 28–29

and pest control, 81; ratio of, to carbon ( See C:N ratio); and

mass-balance approach, 217

reduced tillage, 183. See also nitrate; nutrients

microarray analysis, 266

nitrogen cycle: importance of, 19–20

microbial soil tests, 265–266

nitrogen fixation, 19–20, 39, 108

micronutrients, 13

nitrous oxide, 19–20, 198, 213

microorganisms: competing with plants, 93–94; in compost,

no-till planters, 27, 185

141; and plant growth, 17; role of, 39. See also algae;

no-till system, 179–181; in case study, 127, 185–186; changing

bacteria; fungi; protozoa; soil organisms

to, 180; and crop yields, 179–180, 183; and residues, 179;

mineral solids, 3

row crops in, 180

mineral supplements, 72

northern root-knot, 109, 164

mineralization, 13–14, 205

nutrient cycle, 14 (fig. 2.4), 69–74; improvement of, 205–207

models, 218

nutrient loss: and cover crops, 222; and irrigation, 194; and

modern food system, 72

tillage, 222, 223

moldboard plow: and animal farms, 177; and compaction,

nutrient management, 203–212, 251; and livestock farms, 273

63, 162 (table 15.1); and erosion, 60; invention of, 175; and

nutrient sources, 206; environmental impact of, 209; organic

organic farming, 177; and tillage, 176 (table 16.1), 177; use of,

vs. commercial, 209–210

27, 117

nutrients, 227–229; availability of, 15; balancing, 223; buildup

mole drains, 199

of, 73; crediting, 218–220, 250; crop needs for, 216–217;

mow-and-blow system, 96

from decomposing organic matter, 13–14; deficiencies of,

MRTN, 217–218

227–229, 262–263; loss of, 213–215; and malnutrition,

mucigel, 43

7–8; in manure, 131–135; and pest control, 81; supply of,

mucuna: as cover crop, 105

4; and wetlands, 200–201. See also nitrogen; phosphorus;

mulch: benefits of, 91; in case study, 99–100; disadvantages of,

potassium

91; and soil health, 269; as soil protection, 54, 58; and water

management, 195

O

muriate of potash, 210

Olsen test, 237, 242

Muth, Bob, 99–100

optimum water range, 64, 65 (fig. 6.12), 195

mycorrhizal fungi, 16; and aggregation, 54; benefits of, 40; and

orchard-floor cover. See intercropping

cover crops, 102; and pest control, 81; and roots, 40–41. See

organic farms, 73, 183

also fungi; nitrogen fixation

organic matter: addition of, 88; and aggregation, 30; amount

of per soil, 31; calculations, 34–35; and compaction, 169;

N

and crop rotations, 116–118; dead part of, 10, 27, 31;

nematodes: behavior of, 38, 41; as predators, 30; and rotation,

decomposition of, 24, 25, 88; depth of, 29; dollar value

115, 119; in soil, 44, 45, 164; suppression of, 102, 103, 107,

of, 21; and erosion, 157–158; free particles of, 32; in home

109, 274

gardens, 96; improvement of, 270–271; levels of, 32–35,

night crawlers. See earthworms

116–117; living part of, 9–10; management strategies for,

nitrate: and CEC, 14; in excess, 95, 96, 108; hazards of, 213;

88–97; and nutrient availability, 204–205; as part of

levels of, 133; measuring, 218; as nitrogen, 13, 19; and

topsoil, 12; role of, 12; soil content of, 30; storage of, 24;

nitrous oxide, 213; reduction of, 93. See also nitrogen

three parts of, 9–10, 30; very dead part of, 10; and water

nitrate soil test, 242

availability, 195. See also humus

nitrogen: conversion of, 14, 39; and crop rotations, 115; in

over-irrigation, 193 (fig. 17.9), 194

excess, 215; immobilization of, 93, 111; inorganic and

overliming, 233

organic, 19; and legumes, 220; loss of, 19; management of,

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P

protozoa: role of, 41. See also microorganisms; soil organisms

Parks, Darrell, 139

Pseudomonas fluorescens, 44

penetrometer, 258, 260

PSNT, 218, 221, 241–242, 243

percent base saturation, 252–253

pumping stations, 197

perennial forages, 54, 222

PVC tubing, 197, 198

perimeter crops, 83

Pythium, 41

permanent beds, 169, 170, 274

pest management, 6, 77–84, 89, 270; in case study, 186; and

R

mulch, 91

rainfall, 24, 53, 55

pesticide leaching, 18, 194

raised beds, 55, 170, 200

pesticides, xii, 42, 82, 121, 201

recycled wastewater, 190–191

petiole nitrate, 240

red clover, 105

pH management, 231–233. See also soil, acidity

red worm. See earthworms

phaecelia, 113

reflectance spectroscopy, 218, 221

phosphorus: application of, 72; conversion of, 15; deficiency

restricted tillage systems, 179–182

of, 262; in excess, 95, 96; and hyphae, 40; management

rhizobia, 39. See also legumes; nitrogen fixation

of, 213–225; Olsen test for, 237, 242; organic sources of,

rhizobial bacteria, 103

223; and pollution, 214; and reduced tillage, 183. See also

rice paddies, 4, 39, 55, 174

nutrients

ridge tillage, 181–182

photosynthesis, 10

ridges: and drainage, 200

plant defenses, 77–81

root-knot nematode, 109, 164

plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria, 79–80

root systems: assessing, 261–262; and organic matter, 25, 26

plant hormones, 79–80

roots: and aggregates, 43; close-up view of, 43 (fig. 4.3);

plant tissue tests, 239–240

function of, 43; growth of, 63–64; look of, 164; and

plant zones, 84

microorganisms, 43; needs of, 4; as residues, 89. See also

planting densities, 83

hyphae

plastic limit, 61–62

rotary tillers, 178

plow layer compaction, 60–62, 163–170

rotation effect, 116

plow pan. See subsoil compaction

runoff, 53, 153–160; and drainage, 198; and erosion, 57; and

plowing and disking, 26–27, 42, 63, 156

soil health, 260; and soil management, 53. See also erosion

Plowman’s Folly, x

polyculture. See intercropping

S

POM, 32

salicylic acid, 79

ponding, 174, 199 (fig. 17.15), 201, 260

saline soils, 65–66; and electrical conductivity, 66; remediation

potassium: application of, 72; availability of, 227; excess of,

of, 233

227; organic sources of, 223. See also nutrients

saline-tolerant plants, 233

potassium chloride, 210

salinization, 193–194

potassium–magnesium sulfate, 210, 227, 228

salts, 67

PPNT, 218, 242

sandy soil, 54; amount of organic matter in, 31; and crop

prairie, 27, 29, 89, 121

rotation, 99; and PSNT, 241

pre-plant nitrate test (PPNT), 218, 242

secondary tillage, 178

pre-sidedress nitrate test (PSNT), 218, 221, 241–242, 243

secretions of, 17

precipitation, 24, 53, 55

sediment control basins, 159

predatory mites, 100

seed decay, 111

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seed drill, 179

soil pores: and aeration, 50–52, 65; and aggregation, 50; and

seed inoculation, 103–104

compaction, 30; importance of, 17; and infiltration, 53

self-mulching, 168

soil quality. See soil health

sewage sludge, 5, 67, 94

soil samples, 235, 236, 241, 242, 251, 263

shelterbelts, 160

soil solution, 3–4

sidedressing, 211, 220

soil structure. See aggregation

silage, 27–28, 29

soil tests, 231, 235–253, 263–266; and fertilizer, 250–251;

silt, 30

interpreting, 243–250; for nitrogen, 241–242; and nutrient

simulation models, 218

cycling, 73; for organic matter, 243; for phosphorus,

site-specific management, 251

242–243; value of, 270

slash-and-burn system, 6, 155

soil texture: and consistency, 62; and organic matter, 24–25;

sod, 54, 222

and pores, 53. See also clay soil; sandy soil; silt; textural

sod crops, 28, 84

class

sodic soils, 65–6