CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS,
CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS
78. Independent and Dependent Clauses. A sentence may consist of two or more
independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent
clauses.
Independent clauses are joined by conjunctions; such as, hence, but, and, although,
etc.
Dependent clauses are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, where,
when, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, who, what, etc. These dependent clauses may have
the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.)
79. Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. Failure to use the
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proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29),
but a further mention of this fault may wel be made here.
The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the
dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The
sentence, I wonder whom will be chosen, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject
of will be chosen, not the object of wonder, and should have the nominative form who.
Corrected, it reads, I wonder who will be chosen. Examine the folowing sentences:
Wrong: We know who we mean.
Right: We know whom we mean.
Wrong: You may give it to whoever you wish.
Right: You may give it to whomever you wish.
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Wrong: Do you know whom it is?
Right: Do you know who it is? (Attribute complement.)
Wrong: Everybody who were there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)
Right: Everybody who was there was disappointed.
The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case
required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, He gave it to who had the clearest
right, is correct, because who is the subject of the verb had, and therefore in the nominative
case. Give it to whomever they name, is right, because whomever is the object of they
name.
Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the
relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It
serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the
proper case. Say, Whom are you looking for? not, Who are you looking for?
NOTE. Some writers justify the use of who in sentences like the last one on the ground that
it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to
adhere to the strictly grammatical form.
EXERCISE 58
In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:
1. Who whom do you wish to see?
2. You wil please write out the name of whoever whomever you want.
3. I saw who whom was there.
4. Who whom was it you saw?
5. Who whom did you see?
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6. John did not know whom who to ask.
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7. Why did he not ask whomever whoever was there?
8. Who whom can tel the difference?
9. Give it to whoever whomever you please.
10. None of those who were was wanted was were there.
11. The one of those who were was wanted was not there.
12. He is one of those felows who are is always joking.
13. Whom who was caled "The Rail Splitter?"
14. Do you not know whom who it was?
15. That is one of the birds that is are very rare.
16. One of the books which was were brought was one hundred years old.
17. I am not among those who whom were was there.
18. Only one of the men who were was on board survived.
19. Everyone else who was were there was were lost.
20. I am the one of the three men who is am are guilty.
21. He was chosen one of the four speakers who was were to speak on Commencement
Day.
22. It was one of the books which were was being sought by the librarian.
23. Give it to one of the men who whom is found there.
24. To who whom did you give it?
25. It was for whomever whoever was present.
26. Ask whomever whoever is nearest the door.
80. Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs. It is better to use a when clause only in the
subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the folowing:
Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching.
Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching.
Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was stil in the early morning.
Good: The news of the fire came when it was stil in the early morning.
81. Do not use a when or a where clause in defining a subject or in place of a predicate Page 104
noun.
Bad: Commencement is when one formaly completes his school course.
Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course.
Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars.
Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars.
82. So, then, and also, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite coördinate
verbs in a sentence unless and or but be used in addition to the adverb.
Bad: The boys' grades are low, so they indicate lack of application.
Good: The boys' grades are low, and so indicate lack of application.
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Bad: He read for a while, then fel asleep.
Good: He read for a while, and then fel asleep.
Bad: I'l be down next week; also I shal bring Jack along.
Good: I'l be down next week; and also I shal bring Jack along.
EXERCISE 59
Correct the following sentences:
1. Anarchism is when one believes in no government.
2. I am studying German, also French.
3. The clock had just struck five when the cab came.
4. I shal work until nine o'clock, then I shal retire.
5. I was sick al day, so I couldn't come to the office.
6. I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones.
7. Death is when one ceases to live.
8. Dinner is ready, so I shal have to cease work.
9. He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped.
10. He loves good music, also good pictures.
11. A restaurant is where meals are served.
83. Conjunctions. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions Page 105
that frequently cause trouble.
And or but should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, It
was a new valise and differing much from his old one. Say instead, It was a new valise,
differing much from his old one, or It was a new valise, and differed very much from
his old one. Similarly, It was a new book which (not and which) interested him very
much. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; and which should never be used
unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one.
But or for should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the
folowing sentences are bad by reason of this error: He likes geometry, but fails in algebra,
but studies it hard, He read all night, for the book interested him, for it was along the
line of his ambition.
Than and as should not be folowed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: I am as
large as him. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error wil be
apparent. The sentence would then read, I am as large as him (is large). The correct form
is, I am as large as he (is large). Similarly, He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter
than he (is bright).
As may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. He is as tall as I. The first as is an
adverb, the second as is a conjunction. As is properly used as an adverb when the equality is
asserted, but, when the equality is denied, so should be used in its place. He is as old as I, is
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correct, but the denial should be, He is not so old as I. After not do not use as when as is
an adverb.
Neither, when used as a conjunction, should be folowed by nor; as, Neither he nor (not
or) I can come. Neither should never be folowed by or.
Either, when used as a conjunction, should be folowed by or.
84. Placing of Correlatives. The correlatives, such as neither—nor, either—or, not
only—but also, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of Page 106
the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other
part of speech.
Bad: He not only brought a book, but also a pencil.
Good: He brought not only a book but also a pencil.
Bad: He would offer neither reparation nor would he apologize.
Good: Neither would he offer reparation nor would he apologize.
Good: He would offer neither reparation nor apology.
85. The prepositions without, except, like, and the adverb directly should not be used as
conjunctions.
Wrong: Without ( unless) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.
Wrong: This she would not do except ( unless) we promised to pay at once.
Wrong: I acted just like ( as) al the others (did).
Wrong: Directly ( as soon as) he came, we harnessed the horses.
EXERCISE 60
Correct the following sentences:
1. Mary is as old as her.
2. I read as much as him.
3. He either wore his coat or a sort of vest.
4. He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed al night.
5. We are better players than them.
6. He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd
things.
7. There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining.
8. They work harder than us.
9. John is not as tal as you.
10. Neither John or James is as tal as you.
11. I admire Mary more than she.
12. That can't be done without you get permission from the principal.
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13. He dresses just like I do.
14. Directly he came we launched the canoes.
15. This cannot be done except you are a senior.
16. Neither she nor I was present.
17. He not only had a trained pig but also a goose.
18. Mary is not as pretty as Helen.
19. The men neither interested him nor the places.
20. He has traveled more than me.
21. We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much.
22. It is a good book and which has much valuable information.
23. It was a rough town and harboring many criminals.
24. He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics.
25. He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.
EXERCISE 61
Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:
When, where, than, as—as, so—as, neither—nor, not only—but also, either—or, except,
like, without, directly.
86. Prepositions. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the folowing
brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each:
agree with a person differ from (person or thing) agree to a proposition differ from or
with an opinion bestow upon different from compare with (to determine value) glad of compare to (because of similarity) need of comply with part from (a person) confide in (to
trust in) part with (a thing) confide to (to intrust to) profit by confer on (to give) prohibit from confer with (to talk with) reconcile to (a person) convenient to (a place) reconcile with (a
statement) convenient for (a purpose) scared by dependent on think of or about
Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the folowing improper Page 108
expressions in which the preposition should be omitted:
continue on
down until
covered over
inside of
off of
outside of
started out
where to?
wish for to come
remember of
more than you think for
Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence.
Bad: He is a dealer and shipper of coal.
Good: He is a dealer in and shipper of coal.
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EXERCISE 62
Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first
paragraph of §86.
Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the
incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of §86.
QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
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Sentences, Parts of Speech, and Sentence Elements. What are the four kinds of
sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. What is the difference
between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a
subordinate clause? Ilustrate. Ilustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective clause. Ilustrate an
adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is an attribute complement? Ilustrate. What is
an object complement? Ilustrate. Ilustrate and explain the difference between simple,
complex, and compound sentences.
Nouns. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of
most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z? In y? In f or fe? In o? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case
of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s or in an s sound? Of a compound noun or of a
group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine?
What is the difference between common and proper nouns?
Pronouns. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for
their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each
person. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What
pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To
antecedents that are colective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common
gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be
used after everybody? After some one? After some people? After two nouns connected by
or? By nor? By and? What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of
antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and
the restrictive relative? Ilustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be Page 110
used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be
used? The objective? The possessive? May thou and you be used in the same sentence?
When should but that be used, and when but what? May them be used adjectively? May
which be used with a clause as an antecedent? May which and that, or who and that be
used in the same sentence with the same antecedent?
Adjectives and Adverbs. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Ilustrate. What is
comparison? What is the positive degree, the comparative, the superlative? Ilustrate each.
May one say, He is the largest of the two? Reason? He is the larger of the three?
Reason? He is the largest of all? Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be
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compared. May one say, Paris is larger than any city? Reason? Paris is larger than all
cities? Reason? Paris is the largest of any other city? Reason? Is a singular or plural noun
demanded by every? By two? By various? By each? With how many objects may either
be used? Neither? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is
meant by a double negative? Ilustrate. What is its effect? What is the definite article?
Verbs. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Ilustrate. What are the
principal parts of a verb? Name each. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no
auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs, go, see,
begin, come, drink, write. What is a transitive verb? Ilustrate. An intransitive verb?
Ilustrate. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does
an intransitive verb have both voices? Ilustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use
of sit and set. Of lay and lie. Of rise and raise. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of be differ from the
indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what
respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine
its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb?
What class of subjects may not be used with don't, can't, etc.? What determines whether to
use a singular or a plural verb after who, which, and that? What form of the verb is used Page 111
after you? After they? When are shall and should used with I and we? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in dependent clauses
introduced by that, expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of
may and might from can and could. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As
the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which
may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent
on another verb, in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect
infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense?
Connectives. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name
two conjunctive adverbs. Should a when clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal
part of the sentence? May so, then, or also be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May and
or but be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should folow
than or as? Should neither be folowed by nor or or?
A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR
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EXERCISE 63
Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each sentence, in
parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question
involved:
1. He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.)
2. It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.)
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3.