a and b. A pair of addorsed interlaced
ings of the elevation reconstructed by Tʿoros
drinking dragons with wings and forelegs
Toramanian).
surmounting a dragon-cross with dragon-
9.
A pair of confronted winged dragons with
winged birds and flanked by seated dragon-
forelegs (plate 3).
tailed lions (plate 5).
Top register of an opening page of canon
Relief carving above the southern outer door,
tables, L’viv Gospel, monasteries of Mlich and
monastery of Mār Behnām/Deir al-Khiḍr,
Skevra. 1193–1198/99. Transcribed and il -
southeast of Mosul. Thirteenth century. Upper
lustrated by the priest Grigor. Tempera and
section of door: Photograph by courtesy of
274
list of illustrations
Joachim Gierlichs. Detail of lintel: Photograph
Islamiyyah, Kuwait National Museum, inv.
by courtesy of Yasser Tabbaa.
no. LNS 766 T.
18.
A knotted interlace composed of six paired
26.
A single winged quadruped dragon
dragons enclosing a total of twenty-one
(plate 50).
niches (plate 6).
Tongue-strap fitting, Avar necropolis in
Relief carving on the second southern portal
Abony, grave 292. Second half of the seventh
leading to the chapel of the baptistery, mon-
century. Silver. Length 9 cm, width 3.2 cm,
astery of Mār Behnām/Deir al-Khiḍr, south-
thickness 0.3 cm. Budapest, Hungarian
east of Mosul. Thirteenth century. After Fiey,
National Museum, inv. no. 86.1904.12–19,21.
1965, pl. E.
Drawing by courtesy of Falko Daim.
19.
A knotted interlace composed of six paired
27.
A winged regardant quadruped dragon
dragons enclosing a total of twelve niches
(plate 50).
(plate 6).
Fitting, greater Khurasan region. Tenth or
Relief carving on the portal leading to the ves-
eleventh century. Copper alloy, gilding.
tibule, mausoleum of Imām Bahir, Mosul.
Height 4.9 cm, width 4 cm, thickness 0.9 cm
Thirteenth century. Height 350 cm, width 200
max. Private Collection.
cm. The entire portal has been brought to
28.
A pair of confronted winged quadruped
Baghdad in 1939; preserved at the ʿIraq
dragons on the shoulders of a horse stirrup
Museum, Baghdad. After Farès, 1953, p. 53,
(plate 8).
fig. 13.
Afghanistan. Eleventh or twelfth century.
20.
A staff terminating in a dragon’s head
Copper alloy. Height 19.5 cm, width 13.7 cm.
(plate 7).
London, Nasser D. Khalili Collection of
Afghanistan. Eleventh to thirteenth century.
Islamic Art, inv no. MTW 803. Photograph
Copper alloy. Height 69 cm. Copenhagen, the
by courtesy of the Nasser D. Khalili Collection
David Collection, inv. no. 1/999. Photograph
of Islamic Art, London.
by courtesy of the David Collection, Copen-
29.
a and b. A pair of confronted winged quad-
hagen.
ruped dragons (plate 7).
21.
A dragon head holding a quadruped, prob-
Mould for tooling leather. Putative origin:
ably a feline, in its maw (plate 49).
Herat. Twelfth century. Soft stone. Height
Mace head, Anatolia. Twelfth or thirteenth
11.08 cm, width 11.22 cm. Kuwait, al-Sabāh
century. Copper alloy. Height 35 cm. Vaduz,
Collection, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyyah,
Furusiyya Art Collection, inv. no. R-113
Kuwait National Museum, inv. no. LNS 244
(detail). Photograph by courtesy of the
S. Photograph by courtesy of the al-Sabāh Col-
Furusiyya Art Collection.
lection, Kuwait.
22.
a and b. A dragon head holding a human
30.
A pair of intertwined confronted dragon
figure in its maw (plate 49).
protomes (plate 51).
Finial, Iran or the Jazīra. Twelfth or thirteenth
Appliqués at the shoulders of a finger ring,
century. Copper alloy. Height 9.7 cm. Paris,
greater Khurasan region. Twelfth century.
Musée du Louvre, département des Antiqui-
Gold, niello-inlaid, agate. Height 2.14 cm,
tés Orientales, Section Islamique, inv. no. OA
width 2 cm, thickness 1.65 cm, weight 5.7206
6697. Photograph by courtesy of the Musée
gr. Kuwait, al-Sabāh Collection, Dar al-Athar
du Louvre, Paris.
al-Islamiyyah, Kuwait National Museum, inv.
23.
A dragon head holding a bovid in its maw
no. LNS 1777 J.
(plate 49).
31.
a and b. A pair of upright addorsed quad-
Finial, Iran or Afghanistan, perhaps Anatolia.
ruped dragons regardant with forelegs,
Twelfth or thirteenth century. Copper alloy.
wings and entwined bodies (plate 8).
Height 14.2 cm. Copenhagen, the David Col-
Press-mould. Putative origin: Balkh. Twelfth
lection, inv. no. 47/1966. Photograph by cour-
century. Unglazed earthenware. Height 17.5
tesy of the David Collection, Copenhagen.
cm, width 4.5 max. Kuwait, al-Sabāh Collec-
24.
A pair of upright addorsed winged regardant
tion, Dar al-Athar al-Islamiyyah, Kuwait
dragons with forelegs (plate 50).
National Museum, inv. no. LNS 649 C.
Chape. Putative origin: Herat. Thirteenth cen-
32.
a and b. An emblem with a pair of addorsed
tury. Silver. Length 9.79 cm, width 2.81 cm,
regardant dragons with forelegs, wings and
thickness 1.87 cm. Kuwait, al-Sabāh Collec-
entwined bodies on a late Byzantine image
tion, Kuwait National Museum, inv. no. LNS
of an enthroned Christ (plate 51).
1095 M ab ‘b.’
Coin (reverse) of Qara Arslan (539/1144–
25.
A pair of upright confronted dragons
562/1167), the Artuqid ruler of Ḥiṣn Kayfā
(plate 50).
and Khartpert. Copper alloy. London, British
Textile fragment. Putative origin: Dar-i Suf,
Museum. Photograph by courtesy of the
Samangan province. Twelfth or thirteenth
Trustees of the British Museum. b. Detail: after
century. Silk. Height 19 cm, width 9.5 cm.
van Berchem and Strzygowski, 1910, p. 84,
Kuwait, al-Sabāh Collection, Dar al-Athar al-
fig. 33 (drawing of a detail on the coin).
list of illustrations
275
33.
A mirror with three representations of drag-
41.
A pair of upright confronted quadruped
ons: a pair of winged dragons with forelegs
dragons with interlaced tails guarding a
and with crossed bodies at the apex, a dragon
treasure (plate 54).
trampled by a horse and a dragon-tailed
Wall painting in Temple 19, Bezeklik. Ninth
centaur (plate 52).
to eleventh century. Photograph by courtesy
Anatolia or the Jazīra. Early to mid-thirteenth
of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preußischer
century. Steel, gold-inlaid. Height 41.3 cm,
Kulturbesitz, Museum für Islamische Kunst,
diameter 20.9 cm. Istanbul, Topkapı Sarayı
Berlin.
Müzesi, inv. no. 2/1792. Photograph by cour-
42.
A dragon head at the base of a tree (plate
10).
tesy of the Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, Istanbul.
Bowl, Rayy. Second half of the twelfth century.
34.
The so-called Bobrinski bucket (plate 52).
Fritware, overglaze painted (mīnaʾī). After
Possibly Herat. Muḥarram 559/December
İnal, 1970–71, fig. 17.
1163. By Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wāḥid and
43.
A pair of dragon protomes springing from
Masʿūd ibn Aḥmad. Copper alloy, inlay in
the base of a vegetal composition topped by
silver, copper and niello. Height to rim 18.5
a double-headed eagle (plate 55).
cm, diameter 22 cm. St. Petersburg, State Her-
Relief carving on the façade of the Çifte
mitage Museum, inv. no. JR-2268 (detail).
Minare madrasa, Erzurum. Second half of the
Early 20th century photograph, property of the
thirteenth century (before 640/1242–3).
author.
44.
A pair of large serpents coiled around a tree
35.
“Hand-washing machine” (plate 53).
trunk (plate 55).
Illustration from al-Jazarī, Kitāb fī maʿrifat
Marginal ornament in a Yachakhapatum,
al-ḥiyāl al-handasiyya, Anatolia. Early thir-
monastery of Skevra. 1216. Illustrated by
teenth century. Transcribed by Muḥammad
Barsegh K‘ahanay. Yerevan, Matenadaran
ibn Yūsuf ibn ʿUthmān al-Ḥaṣkafī. Tempera
Manuscript Museum, Ms. 5458, 209 fols., fol.
on paper. Height 25.5 cm, width 18 cm. Istan-
26b. After Mnatsakanyan, 1955, p. 532, fig.
bul, Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, Ms. Ahmet III
1051.
3472, fol. 121b. Photograph by courtesy of the
45.
A pair of confronted dragon heads at the
Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, Istanbul.
base of a vegetal composition bearing the
36.
Confronted pairs of winged dragon-tailed
heads of the four Evangelists topped by a
dragons with forelegs (plate 9).
cross (plate 56).
Detail from a candlestick base, the Jazīra. Thir-
Marginal ornament in a copy of the Gospel
teenth century. Copper al oy, silver inlay. New
of Luke, monastery of Gladzor, Vayots Dzor
York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no.
province. 1323. Painting by T‘oros Taronatsi.
91.1.561. Photograph by courtesy of the Met-
Yerevan, Matenadaran Manuscript Museum,
ropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Ms. 6289, fol. 141r. Photograph by courtesy
37.
A protome of a winged dragon holding in
of the Matenadaran Manuscript Museum,
its jaws a stylised human being whose hands
Yerevan.
grip the dragon’s forelegs (plate 53).
46.
A pair of stylised dragon protomes spring-
Waterspout on the façade to the right of the
ing from the base of a cross, their open
main portal, Karatay Han, east of Kayseri, vil-
mouths issuing small crosses (plate 11).
lage of Karadayi. c. 638/1240–1.
Vishap-type khatchk‘ar, Makravankʿ, Ararat
38.
A pair of addorsed dragon protomes emerg-
province. Probably twelfth or thirteenth cen-
ing from a vegetal composition that springs
tury. No. 12 khatchk‘ar. Photograph by cour-
from a mask-like head (plate 9).
tesy of Jean-Michel Thierry.
Fork-shaped harness pendant ornament,
47.
A cross springing from a vegetal interlace
Kebinai, southern Siberia. Sixth to eighth cen-
transforming in a pair of confronted dragon
tury. After Kisilev, 1951, pl. 59/9.
heads (plate 56).
39.
A pair of confronted winged dragon pro-
Marginal ornament in a copy of the Gospel
tomes springing from a vegetal composition
of Mark, Edessa. 1171. Transcribed and illu-
(plate 9).
minated by the priest Hohannes, son of the
Belt fitting, Novocherkassk, Lower Don
priest Manuk. Yerevan, Matenadaran Manu-
region. Second half of the eighth century.
script Museum, Ms. 313, fol. 81. Photograph
Museum of the History of the Don Cossacks,
by courtesy of the Matenadaran Manuscript
Novocherkassk. Drawing by courtesy of Falko
Museum, Yerevan.
Daim.
48.
A double-headed dragon (plate 12).
40.
a and b. A pair of confronted dragon pro-
Relief carving on a funerary stele, Akhlāṭ
tomes springing from a vegetal composition
cemetery. Mid-thirteenth to mid-fourteenth
(plate 10).
century.
Ancestral fire altar (chirāgh khāna), Samar-
49.
A double-headed dragon (plate 12).
qand. Early Islamic period. After Rempel’,
Relief carving on a funerary stele, Akhlāṭ
1987b, pl. LI, fig. 11, drawing to the left side.
cemetery. Mid-thirteenth to mid-fourteenth
Detail: after Rempel’, 1983, p. 127, fig. 47.5.
century.
276
list of illustrations
50.
A cross with an arched cartouche at its base
of Çengelli, southwest of Kars, near Kağizman
enclosing a pair of stylised regardant quad-
(ancient Ayrarat). Eleventh century. Photo-
ruped dragons with crossed bodies (plate 11).
graph by courtesy of Nicole Thierry.
Relief carving above the southern outer door,
59.
A winged quadruped dragon and a feline in
monastery of Mār Behnām/Deir al-Khiḍr,
combat (plate 14).
southeast of Mosul. Thirteenth century. Pho-
Openwork decoration from a brazier (?), Iran
tograph by courtesy of Yasser Tabbaa.
or Anatolia. Twelfth or thirteenth century.
51.
Scene of God expelling Adam and Eve from
Copper alloy. Berlin, Museum für Islamische
Paradise framed by a pair of dragons (plate
Kunst, inv. no. I. 4111. Photograph by courtesy
11).
of Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preußischer
Khatchk‘ar, church of Surb Astvatsatsin,
Kulturbesitz, Museum für Islamische Kunst,
Sevanavankʿ.
Berlin.
52.
A pair of addorsed dragon heads springing
60.
A winged dragon with forelegs and with a
from a vegetal composition (plate 57).
dragon-tail snapping at its own coils (plate
Textile fragment, greater Khurasan. C-14
59).
dating, Institute of Particle Physics (ETH),
Relief carving, Konya. Konya, İnce Minare
Zurich, Switzerland: 1291–1402 (95%). Silk
Müzesi, inv. no. 890. c. 618/1221.
embroidered cotton. Private Collection.
61.
Headpiece with a foliate interlace issuing
53.
A dragon head rinceau (plate 57).
pairs of winged dragon protomes with fore-
Relief carving on an archivolt fragment,
legs and goat heads that are locked in combat
Daghistan. Probably twelfth or thirteenth cen-
with each other (plate 60).
tury. After Baltrushaitis, 1929, p. 55, fig. 88
Painting in the Mush Homiliary, monastery
(drawing).
of Avagvankʿ, Erznga(n). 1200–1202. Height
54.
A headpiece filled with an all-over foliate
70.5 cm, width 55.5. Yerevan, Matenadaran
interlace bearing animal, in particular
Manuscript Museum, Ms. 7729. fol. 546. Pho-
dragon, and human heads (plate 13).
Gospel of Luke, sponsored by Marshal Oshin,
tograph by courtesy of the Matenadaran Man-
Sis. 1274. New York, Pierpont Morgan Library,
uscript Museum, Yerevan.
Ms. 740, fol. 148 (detail). Photograph by cour-
62.
A bird in combat with a dragon (plate 14).
tesy of the Pierpont Morgan Library, New
Relief carving over a window edge on the
York.
southern façade, smal chapel behind the main
55.
A rider on a recumbent quadruped dragon
church of Surp Astvatsatsin, Makaravankʿ
issuing vegetation (plate 57).
monastic complex, Tavush province. Twelfth
Bowl, Tashkent. c. tenth century. Earthen-
or thirteenth century. After Khalʿpakhʿchian,
ware, polychrome painted under a translucent
1980, p. 422, fig. 6.
glaze. Private Collection.
63.
A winged dragon with forelegs in combat
56.
Leaping lions and dragon protomes, the
with a cervid (plate 14).
gaping mouths issuing benedictory inscrip-
Relief carving on an archivolt fragment,
tions (plate 58).
Daghistan. Probably twelfth or thirteenth cen-
Arched faceted handle of the so-cal ed Bobrin-
tury. After Bashkirov, 1931, pl. 72.
ski bucket, possibly Herat. Muḥarram 559/
64.
A dragon-tailed unicorn (plate 59).
December 1163. Made by Muḥammad ibn
Relief carving, Konya. Konya, İnce Minare
ʿAbd al-Wāḥid and Masʿūd ibn Aḥmad.
Müzesi, inv. no. 888. Thirteenth century.
Copper al oy, inlay in silver, copper and niel o.
65.
A dragon-tailed regardant sphinx (plate 15).
Height to rim 18.5 cm, diameter 22 cm. St.
Star tile fragment, smal palace in Kubadabad.
Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum, inv. no.
Konya, Karatay Müzesi. c. 623/1226–634/1237.
JR-2268 (detail). Photograph by courtesy of
After Arik and Arik, 2008, p. 313, fig. 299.
the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.
66.
A pair of confronted harpies with dragon-
57.
Lion heads and dragons with gaping mouths
headed wing tips (plate 61).
issuing vegetal scrolls (plate 58).
Relief carving on the türbe of Hüdavend
Arched faceted handle of the so-called Fould
Hatun, Niğde. 712/1312.
bucket, possibly Anatolia. Late twelfth or early
67.
A dragon-tailed sphinx (plate 61).
thirteenth century. Made by Muḥammad ibn
Relief carving on the left side of the portal of
Nāṣir ibn Muḥammad al-Harawī. Copper
al oy, gilding, inlay in silver, copper and niel o.
the Selim caravanserai, Vayots Dzor province.
Height to rim 18.8 cm, diameter 21.5 cm. St.
727/1326–7 (date in Pers. inscription); 1332
Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum, inv. no.
(date in Armen. inscription).
IR-1668 (detail). Photograph by courtesy of
68.
Pairs of confronted roosters with dragon-
the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.
headed tails (plate 62).
58.
A recumbent serpent reaching towards a
Detail of a textile fragment. Putative origin:
bunch of grapes suspended above its mouth
Samangan province. Silk samite with metal
(plate 13).
thread (?), ochre and green on a brown
Relief carving on the northern capital, church
ground. Height 52 cm, width 11 cm.
list of illustrations
277
Ku wait, al-Sabāh Collection, Dar al-Athar
77.
A seated dragon-tailed lion (one of a pair)
al- Islamiyyah, Kuwait National Museum,
(plate 17).
inv. no. LNS 617 T. Photograph by courtesy
Relief carving above the southern outer door,
of the al-Sabāh Collection, Kuwait.
monastery of Mār Behnām/Deir al-Khiḍr,
69.
a (plate 16) and b (plate 62). Double-headed
southeast of Mosul. Thirteenth century. After
eagles with outspread dragon-headed wings.
Fiey, 1959, fig. 12.
Detail of a textile fragment, probably Anato-
78.
A seated dragon-tailed lion (one of a pair)
lia. c. 1250. Silk. Len