four legs It may thus have a quadruped body, a
However, unlike in most of Christian culture
serpentine body or a quadruped protome extend-
where the overall image of the serpent or dragon
ing into ophidian coils Overall however the ser-
is predominantly associated with its portrayal
pentine body with or without legs enjoyed greater
in the Bible as the epitome of evil and sin,21 the
prominence
position of serpents and dragons in Islamic cul-
In its astrological manifestation, the dragon
ture is ambiguous and can have benevolent as
necessarily has a celestial quality which, as the
well as malevolent connotations The serpent as
sage astrologer Jāmāsp relates to Gushtāsp (Av
symbol of evil does not exist in the Qurʾān where it
Wishtāspa, the Greek Hystaspes), the Kayanian
appears only once in the story of the staff of Mūsā
king of Iranian traditional history and first Maz-
(Moses) metamorphosed into a serpent ( sūra s 20,
daist on the throne, is all-powerful:
20; and 79, 16) 22 However, both serpents and
No one can safely pass that fateful wheel Who
dragons figure more frequently in Persian than
has by wisdom or by manliness escaped the knife-
in Arabic tradition This ambiguity in the nature
sharp claws of that celestial dragon? What has
of the dragon is also mirrored in the Persian lan-
to be will be There is no doubt The shrewdest
guage, the word for dragon (azdahā) being used to
man has not escaped his fate 18
describe “a strong and brave man,” or “passionate
The avian aspect of the dragon is often expressed
testy person” as well as “a tyrant ”23
through its portrayal with wings The latter are
A positive image of serpents or dragons as
asso ciated with the power of flight, a well-known
powerful, friendly and helpful beings persists in
vehicle for the transition from one realm into
Arabic as well as Persian poetry 24 A grateful ser-
another
pent is depicted in the pre-Islamic Arab writings
An early Armenian translation of the third-
of the sixth-century poet ʿAbid ibn al-Abraṣ who
century Christian theologian Origen’s writings
when travel ing through the desert with members
underlines the fiendish nature of the dragon:
of his tribe, the Banū Asad, took pity on a serpent
And we cal vishap many of the largest animals; of
that was tormented by thirst and gave it his last
those on land, the elephant and the serpent, and
drops of water to drink During the night the
an evil and violent man, but when the names are
camels bolted and vanished When ʿAbid, close to
once applied, they do not change their nature We
despair, was searching for his mount, he heard the
call vishap also the invisible evil power, which,
voice of the grateful serpent offering him a camel
asking power of the Lord, struck the righteous
to ride Because of his meritorious act ʿAbid was
man with grievous blows, not in one part, but
thus one of the surviving members of the outing
in all his parts, outer and inner 19
to return to the clan 25 Another story of a life-
yet it is also interesting to note the assertion
saving serpent is recorded by al-Damīrī, citing
that vishap s (Av vishāpa) can fly, as stated by
the shaykh Abu ’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad
the thirteenth-century Armenian philosopher
al-Muzayyin al-Ṣagīr al-Ṣūfī (d 328/939–40), who
and historian, Wahrām Wardapet (also known
fell into a well in the desert of Tabūk and was
as Rabuni Sevleṛntsʿi), in a letter to the Armenian
saved by a viper which, he states:
king Hetʿum of Cilicia (Lesser Armenia, Arme-
nian kingdom from 1198–1375):
…wound itself round me, whilst I remained per-
fectly still in my heart without any emotion; it
Many men have seen vishap s ascend from earth
then twisted its tail round me and took me out
to heaven 20
18 The Story of Rustam and Isfandiyār, tr and ed Clinton,
See Mathews, 1982, pp 245–57; Thierry, 1987, p 384,
1999, p 33; for Gushtāsp’s family tree, idem, pp 24–5
fig 266 The fact that the Genesis serpent is winged is
19 yerevan, Matenadaran MS 6036, fols 124b-125a, cited
also mentioned in the Jewish Apocalypse of Moses, 26;
by Petrsyan, E , and Najaryan, H , eds , Nshkharner Oroginesi
Ginzberg, 1909–38, repr 1946 and 1955, vol 5, pp 123–4,
haykakan tʿargmanutʿyunnericʿ, vol 1, Ejmiatsin, 1979, pp 2,
n 4 21
22, as referred to by Russell, 1987, p 207
On the positive aspect of the serpent in western medi-
20 Alishan, G , Hin hawatkʿ kam hetʿanosakan krōnkʿ
eval symbolism, cf Le Goff, 1979, pp 53–90, repr 1978,
Hayokʿ (“The Ancient Faith or Pagan Religion of the Arme-
pp 236–79; English tr , pp 159–88
22
nians”), Venice, 1910 ed , p 187, as cited in Russell, 1987,
For the figure of the serpent in Arabic culture, cf
pp 206–7 It is of note that before the Fall the Genesis
Ruska, “Ḥayyā,” EI² III, 334b; Kopf, “Afʿā,” EI² I, 214b
23
serpent is described as a winged creature with legs Such a
Steingass, 1892, repr 1981, p 45
24
giant winged quadruped serpent is portrayed, for instance,
Touching stories of helpful serpents were also known
in the wall paintings showing events related to the book of
in antiquity; see Pliny, Naturalis Historia VIII 61; Aelian, De
Genesis on the drum of the dome (far right) in the Armenian
Natura Animalium 6 17 and 63
25
pala tine church of the Holy Cross at Aghtʿamar (915–921)
The story goes back to Ibn al-Kalbī and is dismissed