is found already at a much earlier date While its
Sanahin, near Alaverdi in Lori province, Arme-
different manifestations will be examined in the
nia, which was established in 966 The monas-
following chapters, a noteworthy example, part
tery, which also served as Bagratid necropolis, not
of a frieze on the eastern façade of the Georgian
only functioned as a religious retreat but was an
church of the Virgin in Martʿvili in western
intellectual academy with a scriptorium for the
Georgia, founded by king George II of Aphkha-
copying and illuminating of manuscripts as well
sia (912–957),92 may be mentioned in this context
as a library Significantly, it is in the latter which
The frieze, which is finely carved with scrolling
was added in 1063 that relief-carved interlaced
vines bearing clusters of grapes, also features
dragons are prominently depicted on a column
several composite animals: a winged dragon,
capital After the destruction by the Mongol inva-
shown in profile with forelegs, is flanked on either
sion decades earlier, the library was restored by
side by other imaginary creatures On its left is a
bishop Stephen Sarkis and his disciples Herapet,
centaur-like depiction with quadruped body in
David, Hesou and Karapet, in the late twelfth cen-
profile, extending into a frontal y rendered human
tury (fig 16) 95
upper body with large, stylised heart-shaped head
Of particular significance is the dragon ico-
which appears to be crowned by a halo, while on
nography in the Eastern Christian sphere of the
its right is a composite mythical animal now com-
Jazīra Extremely interesting are its represen-
monly identified as Sasanian-style sēnmurv It is
tations at the thirteenth-century monastery of
rendered in profile with the protome of a canine
Mār Behnām, also called Deir al-Khiḍr, south-
dragon and the characteristic peacock tail 93 The
east of Mosul, near the ancient Assyrian city of
dragon’s head is turned backwards towards the
centaur, its long gaping snout revealing a row
Nimrud situated between the river Tigris and the
of teeth, the bifid tongue projecting towards its
upper Zab 96 The large, fort-like monastery was
raised, unfolded wing The creature’s very long
founded in the second half of the fourth century
sinuous ophidian body forms a large loop, ascend-
as a memorial to the Christian martyrs Behnām
ing behind the body to descend and taper to a
and his sister Sarah 97
point below the body of the centaur, whose fore-
The lintel immediately above the southern
legs rest on the attenuated tail end Of note is the
outer door in an internal corridor of the mon-
ruff-like loop around the dragon’s neck, the ends
astery carries a relief-carved depiction of a pair
of which curve sharply upwards, a feature which
of addorsed recumbent dragons resting on their
appears to be shared by the centaur (fig 15) The
forelegs Their expansive finely scaled ophidian
apotropaic character of these mythical animals,
tails form a pretzel-like knot followed by a loop
which are also a salient feature on the façade of the
and are interlaced to form a horizontally oriented
Armenian church of the Holy Cross at Aghtʿamar
figure of eight along the central axis Smal narrow
(915–921), may be presumed 94 Further of note is
wings attached to the haunches extend towards
the striking difference in the depiction between
the back The creatures are flanked by seated lions
this apotropaic dragon, rendered with forelegs,
portrayed in profile with head en face The paws
and the relief with a bicephalic ophidian dragon
of the inner legs are slightly raised and the long
speared by two riders shown above the western
tails are drawn behind the flank of one of the
entrance of the church, discussed below (fig 107)
hind legs and ascend in a slight curve terminat-
Another important architectural feature is
ing in dragon-headed finials behind the arched
found at the Armenian monastic ensemble at
back A weathered frontally rendered lion head
92 The church of the Virgin in Martʿvili is variously dated
Herzfeld, 1920, vol 2, p 266) dates the reliefs to the period
between the seventh and the tenth centuries, cf Baltrušaitis,
of Badr al-Dīn Luʾluʾ (618/1222–657/1259) Further exten-
1929, p 104 (“Martʿvili”) Mepisaschwili und Zinzadze
sions and renovations were undertaken between 1248 and
(1987, p 160, fig 234) date it to the seventh century
1295 It is further of note that a 33 line Syriac inscription
93 For a detailed discussion of the sēnmurv, see Harper,
engraved on the walls of the church attests that the mon-
1961–62, pp 95–101, and Schmidt, 1980, pp 1–85
astery was spared from destruction by the Ilkhan Baidu in
94 Cf Der Nersessian, 1965, figs 23, 28, 29, 43
1295 Pognon, 1907, pp 132–42, 235, no 76; Fiey, 1959,
95 Baltrušaitis, 1929, pl LXIV, figs 99, 100; Sakisian,
p 50, and idem, 1965, pp 584–5 For a detailed discussion
1939, fig 30; Manoukian, Agopik and Armen, eds , 1967–9;
of the dating, see idem, 1965, pp 590–7
Khalʿpakhʿchian, 1971, p 145, fig 110, right side (drawing)
97 The monastery is named after Behnām, allegedly of the
96 The dating of the reliefs is uncertain Inscriptions in the
Assyrian family of Sennecherib II, the governor of Nineveh,
church show that renovations of the choir were undertaken
who was killed together with his sister during the persecu-
by the patriarch Mār Athanasius of Antioch in 559/1164
tion of the Christians by Ardashīr (279–283), son of Shāpūr
(Pognon, 1907, pp 134–5, no 75) Herzfeld (Sarre and
Cf idem, 1965, vol 2, pp 565–74
dragons on monumental settings in regions west of iran
33
projects above the centre of the relief Below, on
of six pairs of dragons form trilobed arch-shaped
the actual lintel, a Christian cross, from whose
niches that accentuate a portal
base also spring regardant quadruped dragons, is
At Mār Behnām the second southern portal
flanked, in turn, by pairs of confronted regardant
leading to the chapel of the baptistery is
birds whose tail feathers end in dragon heads with
framed by a moulding in the form of a knotted
gaping jaws snapping at the birds’ tails (figs 17a
interlace composed of the bodies of six dragons
and b, details figs 50 and 74) 98 The symbiosis of
that enclose a total of twenty-one niches (fig 18) 101
birds or felines with the dragon will be further
The horizontal section of the portal is defined by
examined in chapter 5
the entwined necks of the addorsed dragons, with
The bilateral y symmetrical configuration of the
the exception of the central arch-shaped enclosure
dragons shows them with entwined tails tapering
that is topped by a projecting lion head en face
to a pointed tip and forming a vertically oriented
The dragon heads are crowned by arched horns
figure of eight Their scaly serpentine bodies are
and small, cusped ears folded to the back; they
doubly intertwined in a pretzel-like knot and a
are rendered with the characteristic wide-open
simple loop The large heads, with characteristic
mouths revealing a long tongue, the elongated
wide-open jaws revealing two long pointed fangs
upper jaws terminating in a rolled-up tip At the
and twisted forked tongues, face stemmed cups
base the tails form a single loop The vertically
The almond-shaped eyes seem to squint slightly;
interlaced ogival arch-shapes each comprise eight
small, cusped ears project at the top of the head
niches: three enclose hooded standing figures
Their supernatural properties are underlined by
holding a book in the left hand and a cross in
a pair of arched narrow horns, swept towards
the right hand, probably representing monks,102
the back, and by the slender, curved wings that
while the others contain the symbol of the cross
spring from an ornament that winds around the
The horizontal interlace encloses a tall standing
dragons’ haunches, terminating in an angular
figure next to a small, nude figure and a rider on
curl (a detail which can also be seen in the Cizre
horseback,103 also alternating with the cross motif
dragon-knockers, fig 83) The inner front leg is
The lintel carries a central Christian cross which
slightly raised, a feature that is paralleled in the
extends at the base into a stemmed palmette
figures of the flanking lions
At the portal leading to the vestibule at the
Significant are equal y the closely related carved
mausoleum of Imām Bahir the frame is similarly
mouldings that provide an enlarged frame for
set off with a knotted interlace, here accentuated
the entire portal both at the monastery of Mār
with a scaly pattern, enclosing twelve niches,
Behnām and at the thirteenth-century mauso-
which contain foliate arabesques surmounted
leum of Imām Bahir in Mosul,99 which was pos-
in the arched section with a tiny muqarnas
sibly erected at the order of Badr al-Dīn Luʾluʾ
(fig 19) 104 The lintel is inscribed with the words
(618/1222–657/1259) 100 In both cases stylistical y
“Muḥammad, al-Malik, Allāh, ʿAlī ” The outer
and iconographical y closely related compositions
dragon pairs form a vertical interlace that encloses
98 Cf Preusser, 1911, p 11, pls 5, 6 2; Fiey, 1959, p 145, n
vol 2, p 247); the other carving has been interpreted as the
1 a, fig 12; and idem, 1965, vol 2, pp 565–9, esp pp 605–6;
entry into Jerusalem ( eidem, 1920, vol 2, p 247)
Kühnel, 1950, p 12, fig 14; Gierlichs, 1996, pl 59 1 (upper
104 Also published in Mossoul au temps des Atabeks, ed
section of door)
Saʿīd al-Daywahchī, Mosul, 1958, fig 36; ʿAṭṭa al-Hadīthī
99 Located near Bāb Sinjār The entire portal frame was
and Hanāʾ ʿAbd al-Khāliq, al-Qibāb al-Makhrūṭiyya fi ’l-ʿIrāq
brought to Baghdad in 1939, cf Fiey, 1965, p 595, n 1;
(“Conical Domes in Iraq”), Baghdad, Ministry of Informa-
Gierlichs, 1996, p 230, n 455 Ministry of Culture and Arts,
tion, Directorate General of Antiquities, 1974, pl 82; Janabi,
ed , Guide to the ʿIraq Museum, 1979, fig 49
1982, fig 170 B; Uluçam, 1989, pp 141–3, figs 314, 315
100 Farès, 1953, p 52 An inscription on the eastern
The tomb chamber of the mausoleum, which carried frag-
wall gives the date 699/1300; however it is unclear whether
ments of the Āyat al-Kursī, the Throne Verse ( sūra 2, 255),
this date refers to the construction or a renovation of the
on the four walls of the chamber, a mihrab with a hanging
monument Another inscription on the southern wall names
lamp and prayers for the holy family of Shīʿism on the qibla
the builder, ʿAbd al-Rāḥim ibn Aḥmad See Uluçam, 1989,
wall, is discussed by al-Suyūfī (d 1901), Majmūʿ al-kitābāt
p 141
al-muḥarrarah fī abniyat al-Moṣulʾ, ed Saʿīd al-Daywahchī,
101 Preusser, 1911, pl 12; Fiey, 1965, pl E; Gierlichs,
Mosul, 1956, pp 141–7; Ibn Faḍlallah al-ʿUmarī, Manhal
1996, pl 59 4 (upper section of portal)
al-awliyāʾ wa mashrab al-aṣfiya min sādāt al-Moṣul al-hadbāʾ,
102 Two figures are identified by inscriptions; Fiey, 1965,
ed Saʿīd al-Daywahchī, Mosul, 1967, pp 225–6; both cited
p 601
after Khoury, 1992, pp 23–4, ns 20, 28 Shrines with refer-
103 The two carvings are often referred to as relating to the
ences to Shīʿī imams and their descendants are thought to
scene of the baptism of Sarah by Mār Matta, yet on account of
have played a propagandistic role in Badr al-Dīn Luʾluʾ’s
the nude figure it has been suggested that they might either
campaign to convert madrasa s into Shīʿī shrines Cf also
represent the baptism of Mār Behnām (Fiey, 1965, p 599
Khoury, 1992, p 14, n 29, with reference to Janabi, 1982,
and n 2), or the baptism of Christ (Sarre and Herzfeld, 1920,
pp 53–4
34