the records of Moses of Chorene 36 The Arme-
and who terrorised the region in northwest Paki-
nian Vahagn was identified with the Sun, as also
stan on the border with Afghanistan by causing
reported by the classical Armenian commenta-
periodic destruction to the harvest though vio-
tor on Genesis, “some worshipped the Sun and
lent storms and floods 44 There are parallels to
called it Vahagn ”37 This Armenian hymn from
the great Indo-Iranian dragon-fighter Indra van-
the Zoroastrian tradition finds, as Watkins notes,
quishing Vṛtra, for Apalāla like Vṛtra has aquatic
a parallel in the Vedas, in particular the hymning
features The Buddha appears to be taking over
of Apām Napāṭ, literally the “Son of the Waters”
the role of Indra when he strikes the mountain,
(Rigveda 2 35), as deity and as sacrificial fire,
within which the dragon resides, with Vajrapāṇi’s
which is probably of Indo-Iranian date 38 After an
thunderbolt 45
The Buddha is also said to have tamed and
inconclusive contest for the gleaming khvarәnah
converted another nāgarāja, named Gopāla,
between the dragon Azhi Dahāka and Fire, the
in “Chen-t’o-lo” (Gandhāra (?)) 46 This feat is
khvarәnah escapes to Lake Vārukasha and at the
recorded in Indian texts that were translated into
bottom of the deep lake Apām Napāṭ grabs it
Chinese, such as the early fifth-century transla-
(yast 19 45–54) 39 In another early Armenian epic
tion of the Buddhānusmṛtisamādhi Sūtra (“Sūtra
from Sasun, southwest of Lake Van,40 the hero
of the Ocean-like Samādhis of Buddha Visualisa-
Samsar (Sanasar), who was conceived after his
tion”),47 and is described as taking place at a cave
mother drank from a magical spring,41 slays a
located in a mountain at Nagarahāra near pres-
dragon (vishap) that controls the spring of water
ent-day Haḍḍa/Jalalābad in eastern Afghanistan 48
which feeds the city and must receive a girl in
A pond near the cave is believed to have been the
sacrifice each year 42
lair of a dragon-king (referred to as Gopāla in
Parts of Central Asia, in particular in the
early Indian texts), his five ogress-consorts, who
Kushāṇa empire, were of course Buddhist from
had been transformed into female dragons, and
the first centuries of the millennium It is inter-
various small dragons that terrorised the region
esting to note that in the northwest of the empire
with adverse weather conditions The Buddha was
– which seems to have been the only geographical
summoned to the area where he and his atten-
region where he fulfilled such a role – the Buddha
dants tamed the dragon king Once converted,
appears in the role of a dragon-fighter 43 He over-
the latter implored the Buddha to stay on for
comes the great dragon-king (nāgarāja) Apalāla,
1500 years whereupon the “World-Honoured
the dragon who lived in the mountain spring that
One” left his “luminous mystical form” or “pro-
was the source of the Śubhavāstu (Swāt) river
jection” (shadow) image in the cave 49 A related
36
44
Patmutʿiwn Hayocʿ, tr Langlois, 1872, pp 40–1; Wat-
Si-yu-ki, vol 1, tr Beal, 1884, repr 2000, pp 121–3
kins, 1995, pp 253–4 Cf Russell, 2004, pp 357–70
A list of ancient Indian sources that were subsequent-
37 Alishan, G , Hin hawatkʿ kam hetʿ anosakan krōnkʿ Hayokʿ
ly translated into Chinese recording the story of the Bud-
(“The Ancient Faith or Pagan Religion of the Armenians”),
dha’s subduing of Apalāla and Gopāla in the Kushāṇa
Venice, 1910 ed , p 187, as cited in Russell, 1987, p 270
kingdom is provided by Rhie, 1999–2002, pp 116–7 Cf
38 Watkins, 1995, p 254 Also Janda, 2010, p 255 On
Strong, 1992, pp 26–7 The theme of the Buddha convert-
Apām Napāṭ, see Oldenberg, 1894, repr 1977, pp 118–20
ing Apalāla was a very popular subject in Gandhāran art;
and n 1; Boyce, 1975, repr 1996, pp 41, 44–50 Cf yasht 19;
see, for instance, Gandhara, 2009, cat nos 173 (from the
Boyce, 1984, pp 29–30
Dharmarājikā stūpa complex in Taxila, Taxila Museum,
39 Gershevitch, 1959, p 59
inv no C 4ID 46) and 174 (Peshawar Museum, inv no
40 Russell, 2004, p 879 and n 8
PM-3133) The taming of the serpent king can perhaps also
41 Azarpay, 1981, p 99 On the motif of the supernatu-
be seen in the light of the successful cultivation of the Swāt
ral conception and birth of heros, see Schirmunski, 1961,
valley
45
pp 27–8
Si-yu-ki, vol 1, tr Beal, 1884, repr 2000, p 122 and
42 Russell, 2004, p 1123 The Hebrew Bible similarly con-
n 14 Cf Carter, 1992, p 70
46
tains many traces of ancient mythology, wherein yahveh, in
Aśokarājāvadāna, I See Rhie, 1999–2002, p 116
47
primeval times, overcomes monsters that are extremely simi-
Rhie, 1999–2002, p 118–27
48
lar to the dragon-like beings defeated by the various Near
Caspani, 1945, pp 49–52; Soper, 1949, p 279; Rhie,
Eastern gods Added to names already present in the more
1999–2002, pp 113, 136–7, and ns 227, 242; image section
ancient Ugaritic texts, such as yamm, Mavet or Mot, were
2 b and figs 1 7a–c
49
names such as Peten, Nahash, Rahab, Leviathan, Tannin,
Rhie, 1999–2002, pp 117–27, and n 242 (with refer-
Behemot
ence to Soper (1949, pp 314–30, and 13, nos 1–2, 1950,
43 Strong, 1992, p 27 Dragon-slaying or -taming myths
pp 63–75) who relates the legend to Zoroastrian and even
are not unknown in East Asian cultures In the Chinese con-
Manichean beliefs) On the discussion of the inappropri-
text the Buddha is also known in the role of “Huan Long Shi,
ate common translation of the Chinese character “ying” as
the dragon-tamer ” which may however be informed by the
“mirror image of the Buddha’s body” (a fully-fledged Buddha
Central Asian prototypes Cf Wu Hung, 1986, p 270
image), his “projection” in other words rather than the com-
the dragon in scenes of combat
91
version of this story is also given by the seventh-
The eschatological role of the hero
century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang who visited
and described the dragon cave which at that time
Middle Persian/Pahlawī texts describe an escha-
was wel -known for the belief that the Buddha had
tological myth which shows the dragon as the
once been there on a supernatural visit and had
being responsible for the lapse into chaos and
left his “luminous reflected image ”50
death that is to take place at the end of time As
It is noteworthy that whereas Indra kills the
a consequence of this metamorphosis the latter
dragon, the Buddha chooses to subdue, tame and
has to be fought by valorous characters symbol-
convert Apalāla and Gopāla, by opening their
ising the status quo The dragon-fighter Frēdōn
eyes to the destruction they had caused and by
(the Avestan Thraētaona) is first mentioned as
“graphically showing [them] the world as it truly
fulfilling an eschatological role: he defeats but
is – an intolerable place of pain ”51 Rather than
does not kil the giant dragon, binding and impris-
physical dominance or even the destruction of
oning him “in the most grievous punishment of
the dragon, he advocates introspective paths and
confinement” at Mount Damāwand 54 The con-
moral transformation
quering hero thereby also frees the royal women,
Another Buddhist story recorded by Xuan-
Sauuaŋhauuāci and Arənauuāci, “the two most
zang concerns a nāgarāja who lives in a lake on a
beautiful women in the world,” the two wives
mountain two hundred miles northwest of Kapisa
of Azhi Dahāka/Ẓaḥḥāk 55 Hence in later myths
After many years of stirring up natural forces to
female figures appear to have replaced water and
destroy the monasteries and stūpa s founded by
rain as symbols of fertility and life 56 The theme of
the Kushāṇa king Kanishka, the creature is even-
the rescue of a princess or maiden by the dragon
tual y overcome by the king The story relates how
vanquisher, which became a regular topos in most
the thunderous voice of the dragon “shook the
Iranian dragon-slaying stories, was introduced
earth, and the fierce winds tore up the trees, whilst
when the dragon became identified with a histori-
stones and sand pelted down like rain,” where-
cal person, such as the foreign tyrant Ẓaḥḥāk, who
upon the king summons al the accumulated merit
imprisoned the maiden 57 The dragon remains
of his past lives and “from both his shoulders there
bound at Mount Damāwand until the end of the
arose a great flame and smoke ”52 This form of
world approaches when the other great dragon-
imagery shows a solar ruler who tames the mon-
fighter, Kərəsāspa (who figures as Kirsāsp in Mid
strous dragon- nāgarāja by making a pact with
Pers and Garshāsp in N Pers ) will be awak-
him: as soon as some unfavourable weather phe-
ened (resurrected) by the divine beings Srōsh and
nomenon appears, the ghantā (cymbal or drum)
Nēryōsang 58 It is for him that the final victorious
will sound to remind the dragon of his prom-
battle against the dragon is reserved, the final war
ise whereupon he will cause the danger to sub-
between Good and Evil Spirits 59 His eschatologi-
side 53
cal work takes place and Kərəsāspa defeats the
dragon when he emerges near the end of time
from his captivity, breaks free of his fetters, wreaks
havoc and causes much devastation in the world 60
56
monly used “shadow,” see Rhie, 1999–2002, p 113 and
Cf Gershevitch, 1959, p 45; Remmer, 2006, pp 212–
n 227 Cf Wang, 2005, pp 245–6
25
50
57
Si-yu-ki, vol 1, tr Beal, 1884, repr 2000, pp 93–7 Cf
Khāleqī-Moṭlaq, “Aždahā II,” EIr
58
Strong, 1992, pp 28–30; Rhie, 1999–2002, pp 132–3
yasht 3 60–2 Christensen, 1931, tr 1993, p 95
51
59
Strong, 1992, p 27
Cf idem, pp 55, 95
52
60
Si-yu-ki, vol 1, tr Beal, 1884, repr 2000, pp 62–6,
Bundahishn 29 9 and in greater detail in Dēnkard
esp p 65 Cf Carter, 1974, p 186, n 67 For a discussion
9 21 8–10 Cf Hintze, 1999, p 82 Like Garshāsp, Sām plays
of the Kushāṇa royal solar cult, see also Rosenfield, 1967,
a part in eschatological events: on Mount Sagāwand he lies
pp 189–91
on his back in the cold covered by snow and guarded by ten
53 Si-yu-ki, vol 1, tr Beal, 1884, repr 2000, p 66
thousand frawashi s (Pahl frawahr) of the righteous until the
54 Dēnkard 9 12 19, tr West, W E , Sacred Books of the
dragon breaks loose and the final battle commences Bunda-
East, Oxford, 1880–7, repr Delhi 1965, p 40
hishn 197 14–98 6; Monchi-Zadeh, 1975, pp 108–9, 142–3
55 yasht 5 34; 17 34 Watkins, 2005, p 464 In later tradi-
In the Avesta Sāma is the name of a clan, to which Thrita as
tions the female figures became Jamshīd’s (yima) sisters or
well as his sons Kərəsāspa and Urvākhshaya belonged (yasna
daughters; Zaehner, 1955, repr 1972, p 413 The theme is
9 10); Monchi-Zadeh, 1975, p 109 From Sasanian times
also attested in Greek mythology, for instance, the hero Per-
onwards, however, Sām and Garshāsp began to be taken as
seus saves Andromeda from an aquatic dragon
the names of separate persons
92