2. MEDITATION
Meditation, which can be explained as meaning "concentration," is a commonly accepted method of reaching a state of mindfulness and calm. There are numerous styles of meditation, and in many of its forms it seems to focus on transcending suffering, including afflictions of the mind, and, in so doing, reaching a state of peace. With some styles of meditation such as Tibetan samatha meditation, it is the process, not necessarily the end result that is emphasized, “this is a path of freedom, not just to freedom.”2 Peace, harmony, and compassion can be created during the meditation process, in spite of the reality that most practitioners do not achieve nibbana/nirvana, or enlightenment. Essentially, through many forms of meditation, suffering and delusion are replaced by insight, joy, and compassion.
Batterers are among such individuals who suffer from afflictions of the mind. Furthermore, many individuals who work in the domestic violence field believe that batterers lack compassion and empathy. Therefore, meditation seems to offer the ideal benefits to help transform batterers into more compassionate, peaceful people.
I have chosen to focus on Vipassana and Transcendental Meditation (TM), as these two styles have taken strides to bring meditation into prisons and evaluate the results. Though these styles are quite different, they have yielded similar results in research findings. Both have been evidenced to cure inmates of ailments including alcohol and drug addiction and aggressive behavior. Both methods also claim to be secular and therefore can be practiced by all people. The following two sections are intended as a brief description of these two styles of meditation and are in no way exhaustive.
Vipassana Meditation
Siddartha Gotama, the historical Buddha, reached a state of enlightenment through the practice of Vipassana meditation. Vipassana is a Pali word that translates to mean “insight,” or “to see things as they really are.” While the Buddha was alive, he did not profess the philosophy we nowadays refer to as “Buddhism,” but rather the law of nature, or in Pali, “dhamma.” The belief behind dhamma is that all people are suffering. This was the topic of the Buddha’s first teaching, that all life is suffering, also known as the First Noble Truth. The Buddha also designed the pathway out of suffering which involves following a strict moral code of conduct combined with dedicated practice of Vipassana meditation. Vipassana was brought back from near extinction by S.N. Goenka, who is responsible for the worldwide Vipassana movement that exists today.
Goenka presents Vipassana as a pathway to the eradication of suffering through self-observation and self-realization. “All the sages, saints, and seers of the world have advised, 'Know thyself.'”3 Through self-observation and introspection-- being aware of and exploring the sensations in our body-- we cultivate insight and realize the true nature of the self. Goenka counsels us that it is not enough to merely know the truth of our nature on an intellectual, devotional or emotional level. Rather, in order to eradicate suffering we must accept the nature of our being at the experiential level. Goenka explains that all emotions, cravings, and aversions are felt as impermanent sensations in the body. If we can train ourselves to recognize the sensations in our bodies and to be aware of our true nature we would be less likely to be controlled by emotions and react blindly to external stimuli. This would be extremely useful for batterers, as it would help them understand their cravings to be in control, as well as their aversions to negative emotions such as humiliation. Batterers are, afterall, the first victims of their harmful thought patterns. Goenka describes, 'When I generate anger, hatred, ill will, or animosity, I am the first victim of my anger. I am the first victim of the hatred or animosity that I have generated within. First I harm myself, and only afterwards do I start harming others. This is the law of nature.”4 Although the sensations are felt within the body, the suffering is generated in the mind. By observing the sensations within our body without reacting to them, we begin developing control over our mind. Goenka elucidates,
Intellectually one may understand that it is wrong to commit unwholesome actions...But when the temptation comes, it overpowers the mind and one breaks sila [morality]... He cannot stop himself, because he has no control over his mind. But when one learns to cease committing unwholesome mental actions, it becomes easy to refrain from unwholesome words and deeds. Because the problem originates in the mind, we must confront it at the mental level. In order to do so, we must undertake the practice of bhavana-literally, “mental development,” or in common language, meditation.5
One main form of suffering is delusion. Delusion means that our reality becomes warped, we are not able to see the world clearly because our ego clouds our perception. We create problems which exist only in our minds, "and from this delusion, other twistings of the mind occur: selfish craving, hostility, aggression, and a myriad other derivative afflictions."6 In this sense, batterers are deeply deluded, and suffer from the many aforementioned afflictions.
“An alcoholic thinks that he is addicted to alcohol. He is actually addicted to the sensations he feels when he drinks alcohol...The sensations are the root.” Goenka goes on to warn us, “As long as one neglects the root, the poisonous tree will grow again even if the trunk is cut.”7 In order to eliminate the roots of suffering through Vipassana, one must not only participate in a ten day Vipassana meditation course, one must maintain a vegetarian diet and obey the minimum of moral conduct, defined as the Five Precepts:
1) to abstain from killing any living creature;
2) to abstain from stealing;
3) to abstain from sexual misconduct;
4) to abstain from false speech;
5) to abstain from intoxicants.8
In addition, one must meditate for at least two hours daily. Goenka explains,
It is not such a simple matter to remove these defilements. You have to work hard and diligently. First you have to learn to control your mind. Then slowly you have to learn to see within: “See, this defilement is arising in my mind and look this is the sensation on my body, and unpleasant sensation and then I become tense and unhappy.9
Because of the strict conduct and rigorous practice, Vipassana has been considered to be “the Marine Corps of meditation,” and it has been estimated that only ten percent of the students who learn the technique embrace the practice permanently.10
Transcendental Meditation
In many ways TM, is similar to Vipassana meditation. This technique also has it's origins in India, claims to be non-sectarian, and is described as a “consciousness-based” tool for self-development. The founder, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, like S.N. Goenka, spread the technique throughout India and brought it to the rest of the world in the mid to late 1970s.
However, where Vipassana is decidedly characterized as “rigorous,” TM has regularly been described as a “simple and effortless” technique, even passive. Like Vipassana, it is practiced twice daily sitting quietly with eyes closed, but instead of the minimum hour-long sessions, as in Vipassana, TM can be done in fifteen to twenty minute sittings.11 One must also be taught by a TM trained teacher in a seven step program which includes four days of instruction in the technique.
TM does not require any particular practices, beliefs, or changes in lifestyle. Instead of the underlying philosophy being based on the idea that life is suffering, the Maharishi states, “Life is bliss. Man is born to enjoy.”12 It is defined as holistic because it focuses on balancing the physiological, cognitive, emotional and behavioral levels, and developing consciousness.13 Though not much can be found about the specifics of TM meditation without having undergone a personal training, TM is the most widely researched meditation and personal development program.
Prison, in many respects, is an ideal place for personal development, having large captive populations of people who have used --or are accused of using-- violence and committing crimes, with nothing but time on their hands. Generally, prisons have been used and viewed as punishment chambers with the intention of making the inmates "pay" for the crimes they committed. The idea that subjecting inmates to mental and physical pain and instilling fear in them will keep them from committing future crimes, has proved to be more destructive than effective. Human rights are continuously violated in prisons in the form of rape, torture, inhumane conditions, etc. and hatred and fear are ceaselessly cultivated. Thus, prisoners are frequently dehumanized, making it easier for them to dehumanize themselves and others, facilitating the perpetuation of violence. Most prisoners will leave prison more vicious and violent than ever before, with rage and hate oozing out of their being. It is at this time they will rejoin society. It goes without saying, "If they are not reformed they will commit more crimes.”14
Many prison systems are beginning to see how this punitive method creates a vicious cycle of violence and crime. Alternative approaches are being implemented which strive to cultivate compassion in officers and prisoners alike. As Mahatma Gandhi recommended, they are starting to play the role of “social hospitals.”15 Instead of dehumanizing prisoners, the intention is to "re-humanize" them. “More and more, prisons are being viewed as institutions of reform and rehabilitation rather than places of humiliation and punishment.” Meditation programs constitute one of such alternative rehabilitation programs currently being used and research in prison systems throughout the world. In particular, Vipassana and TM have conducted numerous studies about the benefits of meditation with prisoners.* Studies have reported the numerous benefits of prison meditation. “It's not a trick or a pill,” a jail administrator commented, “It's hard conscious effort. It teaches them how to control themselves, how to go inside and deal with what's there.”16
Research on Meditation in Prisons
Extensive research has been conducted on the benefits of both Vipassana and TM. This paper examines data taken from two Vipassana research projects conducted at Tihar Jail in India17 and the North Rehabilitation Facility in Washington state,18 as well as four TM studies in: Massachusetts's maximum security facility for male offenders,19 the Penitentiary System in Senegal,20 the Federal Correctional Institution at Lompoc, California,21 and Folsom State Prison, California.22 The findings were similar with both styles of meditation, but will be examined below separately.
The studies conducted by the Vipassana Research Institute concluded that the practice of Vipassana generated a higher degree of positive emotions such as kindness, compassion, peace of mind, optimism and tolerance, in addition to increasing the subjective well being and quality of life.23 Likewise, negative emotions, such as depression, anger, anxiety, ill will, helplessness, revenge, and anomie were reduced. Moreover, studies found that criminal propensity lowered.24 Jail staff have noted that after practicing Vipassana, inmates became more ethical and responsible. “Inmates learned to control their emotions and feelings. They have developed an attitude of positive thinking.”25 Jail staff and meditation teachers believe that it is a combination of observing the five moral precepts with the understanding of impermanence that has contributed to the success of the practice. “Vipassana has a profound effect because it strikes right at the root cause of human suffering.”26 Vipassana is also cost-effective, as one course taking place in Tihar Jail No. 4 in 1994 included over 1000 inmates. “Another immediate effect of Vipassana has been that inmates have been able to give up their addictions to drugs, intoxicants, smoking, etc.”27 Ram Singh, Vipassana meditation teacher at Tihar jail stated in his article reviewing the history of Vipassana in Prisons, The success of the experiment heralds a new era of reform and rehabilitation for those who fall to crime. Vipassana provides an effective way to liberate them, not only from the life of crime but also from all suffering and misery.28
Vipassana meditation necessitates continuous practice in order for the desired effects to be sustained. It should also be noted that the courses are offered to inmates and are not mandatory. Thus self-selection may be a factor in the overall success of the programs.
TM also commonly offers its programs in prisons to self-selected inmates, though that is not always the case. TM was taught in the Senegalese Penitentiary System in 31 of the 34 prisons in Senegal over a two year period with 11,000 inmates and 900 correctional officers and prison administrators receiving the technique.29 The results were that, “Rule infractions decreased, medical expenses went down 70%, and recidivism dropped from 90% in the pre-meditation period to less than 3% after the program was established.”30 The study does acknowledge that, It is important to note that these results were not the product of a controlled study, and therefore, must be treated with some reserve. However, Diop (personal communication, January 12, 1989) made the following comment on the reduction in recidivism in his letter to Mr. Anklesaria: 'Considering that there is no structure or scheme for the reintegration of inmates into society, nor is there any provision for work or jobs for those released, it appears that the only possible explanation for this remarkable drop in recidivism in our country is to be found in the application of your program. These studies demonstrate the remarkable potential meditation can offer prison systems and other programs that work with people who use violence, such as batterers.
The four TM prison studies examined in this paper had similar findings which evidence that TM reduces the psychological risk factors of depression, schizophrenic symptoms, anxiety, neuroticism, rebelliousness, emotional distress, aggression, irritability, negativity, and anti-social behavior. Also noted was a disappearance of insomnia. Significant reductions in drug and alcohol use were also reported. In one study, “The TM technique was found to enhance ego development and reduce pathological symptoms...in a population otherwise recalcitrant to change.”31 In addition to reducing negative characteristics, the technique has been evidenced to increase self-confidence in inmates, improve inmates' relationships among their peers as well and with prison staff, as well as brought about a marked improvement in general health conditions.32
Research has also been conducted in the field of alcohol and drug abuse recovery and prevention among at-risk juveniles. Part of this study was to gage interaction in families that have learned TM. The results show that there is, increased emotional maturity, reduced anxiety and an increase in the ability to be on the one hand sympathetic and compassionate and on the other hand objective and fair-minded,
(Marcus, 1977). These qualities also contribute to more effective parenting.33
The sum of these findings imply that both TM and Vipassana meditation would be beneficial for all people to learn since both styles of meditation have been evidenced to reduce negative traits, such as aggression and depression, and increase positive feelings such as compassion. These benefits would be especially useful to help people who use violence transform themselves. Batterers are among the many people that could greatly benefit from what meditation can offer. In this sense, it is not only the individuals who learn the techniques that will become more peaceful, but their potential victims and society at-large will benefit as well.
Though the majority of studies were conducted on males only, one study found that Vipassana had similar effects on the subjective wellbeing and criminal propensity, irrespective of the gender of the participants.34 This suggests that both men and women benefit equally from meditation. Nevertheless, in order to fully understand how and if meditation works and if it will work for batterers, it is necessary to investigate what actually occurs in the brain and the physical body during meditation.