Introduction to Mediation and the Effects on the Brain and Body
The notion that the mind is malleable and trainable is very prominent in Buddhist philosophy. Many meditation practitioners and proponents assert that the brain structure physically changes due to meditation, and claims of advanced mental powers are not unusual in regard to those who meditate devoutly. Neuroscientists are beginning to study the effects that meditation has on the brain at the same time that quantum physicists have begun to insist that human consciousness plays a major role in creating reality. Vipassana meditation stresses that defilements (cravings or aversions) cause a biochemical reaction, manifesting in the body in sensations such as pain, numbness, feeling hot or nauseous, etc. Furthermore, Vipassana claims that all reactions to life situations are actually reactions to subconscious sensations felt in the body. Joe Dispenza explains the nueroscience behind this in layman's terms,
There is a part of the brain called the hypothalamus and it is like a little mini factory and it is a place that assembles certain chemicals that match certain emotions that we experience. Those particular chemicals are called “peptides,” they are small, chain, amino-acid sequences... In the hypothalamus...we assemble them into certain neuro-peptides or neuro-hormones that match the emotional states that we experience on a daily basis. So there are chemicals for anger, and there are chemicals for sadness, and there are chemicals for victimization, there are chemicals for lust...there is a chemical that matches every emotional state that we experience. And the moment that we experience that emotional state in our body and in our brain, that hypothalamus will immediately assemble the peptide that then releases into the pituitary into the bloodstream; the moment it makes it into the bloodstream it finds it's way to different centers or different parts of the body. Every single cell in the body has these receptors on the outside...that are really just receivers of incoming information.35
These chemicals actually change the cell, thus our emotions physically change our body on a cellular level. When we react to our emotions we are really reacting to physical sensations that we feel in our body. However, by diverting our attention away from the sensation, or, as is practiced in Vipassana, by observing the sensation, we bring awareness to the chemical process taking place in our bodies and it loses power and the ability to control the mind. Dispenza comes to a similar conclusion,
We know psychologically that nerve cells that fire together wire together. If you practice something over and over again those nerve cells have a long term relationship. If you get angry on a daily basis, if you get frustrated on a daily basis, if you suffer on a daily basis, if you give reason for the victimization in your life, you're re-wiring and reintegrating that neuro-net on a daily basis, then, that neuro-net now has a long-term relationship with all those other nerve cells, called an identity. We also know that nerve cells that don't fire together no longer wire together. They lose their long-term relationship because every time we interrupt a thought process that produces a chemical response in the body... those nerve cells that are connected to each other start breaking the long-term relationship.36
The implications of this for batterers, is that they have constructed a long-term relationship with their sensations and subsequent biochemical responses which produce harmful reactions. What they must to do in order to rehabilitate themselves is, as Dispenza states, to “start interrupting and observing, not by stimulus and response and that automatic reaction, but by observing the effects it takes, then we are no longer the body-mind— conscious-emotional-person that is responding to its environment as if it is automatic.”37 This interruption and observation can be achieved through meditation.
James Austin, author of Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness, believes that, “Most human beings exist in a state of chronic dis-ease,”38 and that the ordinary state of our brain's consciousness is learned by social conditioning and reinforcement. Austin, a neuroscientist and zen practitioner, illustrates how we can change our state of consciousness through specific neurological changes in brain activity. Zen and the Brain also explores meditation's effects on the anatomy, physiology, and chemistry of the brain.
Neuroplasticity is a new field of inquiry regarding the ability of the mind to shape the brain. Although this field is extremely new, other notable research that will be discussed below will be drawn from: the in-press report, “Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness,” by Davidson, Dunne and Lutz; the not-yet published report, “Meditation States and Traits: EEG, ERP and Neuroimaging Studies,” by Polich and Cahn;; the 2005 book, Mindfulness and Psychotherapy; as well as research presented by Benjamin Libet. This section is meant to provide a basic introduction to some research findings about the effects that general meditation has on the brain. Practically all researchers have concluded that not that much is known about the effects that meditation has on the brain and that many more studies will need to be done.
Challenges and Limitations of Studies on Meditation and the Brain
Perhaps little research has been conducted because of the many challenges and limitations involved in this type of investigation. Namely, as Libet points out, “Mental phenomena, including conscious experience, cannot be observed by the most complete inspection of the physical brain.”39 Austin also emphasizes that “no physiological or biochemical measurements can define the precise subjective quality of the meditator's private state of awareness at any one moment, let alone sequentially.”40 Many are still doubtful that the mind can be examined scientifically, including several Tibetan monks who took part in a research experiment conducted by the Mind Life Institute in the Himalayas in 1992. One monk questioned,
How can the mind, which is formless and nonphysical in nature, be physically measured? Wouldn't any physical correlate of mind be of very limited utility? If scientists did not believe in reincarnation, which is so important to Buddhist philosophy, then how can they interpret the results they obtain in a way that takes Buddhist context of the training into account?41
The monks and scientists also discussed at length how qualities such as compassion could be measured, as the cultivation of compassion is a significant goal of the practices.
More current criticism of studies involving meditation and the brain admit that there are not many well-designed experiments, “due, in part, to difficulty in creating a control intervention that adequately matches the core elements of the mindfulness practice.”42 Other considerations that may limit research is that meditation, as Austin notes, is not “monolithic.” Many different styles of meditation exist which may all have different effects on brain activity.
Buddhist psychology distinguishes between two distinct methods of meditation: insight (vipassana) and concentration (samatha). Research suggests that the two forms of meditation are neurologically different practices.43
Therefore, these different styles of meditation must be studied separately to accurately gage their effects.
Another concern researchers and meditation practitioners have discussed is the tendency for researchers to lump all levels of meditation practitioners into one study, thereby comparing the effects of meditation in a novice practitioner to a highly experienced one. Buddhist psychology...insists that meditation is a slowly learned skill, with cumulative benefits.
There is effectively a lifetime's difference in capacity between the beginner and the adept. To focus strictly on the skills of the former is equivalent to studying the cognitive, emotional, and motor skills involved in musical performance by looking strictly at, say, beginning piano students (or violin students, or choral singers), without considering either experimental data or first-hand reports from a range of experienced musicians.44
However, Davidson provides research that counters the notion that the effects of novice practitioners are not noteworthy:
These findings raise the possibility that training and practices that are specifically designed to cultivate positive qualities such as equanimity and loving kindness will produce beneficial alterations in brain function and structure. Presumably, these alterations would be most prominent in long-term, advanced practitioners, but we have already shown that even very brief short-term training (30 minutes) in emotion regulation can produce reliable alterations in brain function. (Urry et al., 2003). So too, we have observed that a two month course in mindfulness— based stress reduction (MBSR) can produce alterations in patterns of prefrontal brain activity that we have previously found to accompany positive affect (Davidson, et al., 2003).45
An additional complaint from meditation practitioners is that many studies have focused mainly on the short-term effects of the meditative state itself, without delving into the more cumulative long-term effects.46 This could very well be corrected in future studies, though it may prove to be challenging technologically. In fact, it is possible that the current trend of studies focusing on the effects of meditation in the brain as opposed to long-term psychological effects, are due to rise of more modern-day technologically advanced scientific instruments that use neuroelectric and neuroimaging methods that can more accurately monitor EEG waves, and other tracking mechanisms. Though these scientific studies may be limited due to various challenges, findings have revealed that meditation does in fact affect the brain tangibly, and in a significant way.
Finally, since both the fields of neuroplasticity and gender studies are relatively new, it would be worthwhile in the future for researchers to sex disaggregate results of studies, to see if there are any variations between males and females.
Findings of Studies on Meditation and the Brain
Numerous studies have attempted to report the vast effects that meditation has on the brain. Many of these studies are relayed in dense scientific terminology. Therefore, the reports in this section have been condensed to provide a general idea of what kind of findings have been concluded.
Austin found that meditation increases blood flow to the brain, thus, brain activity becomes more coherent and integrated. In addition, respiration and heart rates slow, muscles relax, and plasma cortisol (the stress hormone) diminishes. Skin resistance increases, in fact, numerous studies have evidenced that meditation practitioners exhibited a quicker recovery rate from stressful situations based on skin response indicators. Moreover, Cahn and Polich's report finds that meditators experienced improved measures of attention, increased perceptual sensitivity, increased visual contrast sensitivity, increased resistance to depression, and increased ability to mitigate the effects of anxiety and stress.47 Meditation practitioners were also found to exhibit greater immune functions and antibody responses to vaccines. “Meditation induces a significant reorganization of frontal hemispheric activity associated with emotional reactivity related to increases in theta and alpha EEG activation (Davidson, 2000, Davidson, 2003).”48 These findings overwhelmingly support the idea that meditation directly promotes neuroplasticity and emotional development.
From a neuroscientific perspective, the apparent effectiveness of MBSR practice raises the question of neuroplacticity-that, is, does it produce alterations in brain function and structure? Recent data indicate a possible relationship between mediation training and changes in the brain structure (Lazar, in press).49
One notable example of how meditation can change the brain structure is that the cortical region (associated with attention and sensory processing) was found to be thicker in mid-range meditation practitioners than in non practitioners.50 The overall conclusion is that, “meditation not only effects and changes the brain but has been known to produce changes in the peripheral body,”51 due to bi-directional communication between the brain and the peripheral body, through the nervous system, the immune system, and the endocrine system.52
Austin also discovered that the neurotransmitter glutamate is released during meditation and affects the brain and all brain systems. This is largely because glutamate is a powerful and fast— acting amino acid that causes heightened consciousness.53 “Through the stimulation of glutamate-producing nerve cells it is possible to dismantle conditioned pathways that have been learned and etched into the brain,” thereby clearing synaptic clutter.54 This adds to the compelling evidence that volitional control of attention through meditation does indeed affect neurophysiology.55
Concluding Remarks on Meditation and the Brain
Austin's main argument in Zen and the Brain is that enlightenment (or a “higher state of consciousness”) occurs only due to the fact that the brain undergoes significant changes. It has been confirmed that the brain can be modified through the learning and unlearning process of the hypothalamus. If the intent is to transform behavior, (as it is in both Buddhist psychology and Batterer Intervention Programs), then the brain must be altered in the way that it perceives stimuli, the way it responds to stimuli at the viceromotor levels, and the way its other systems reinforce the interactions between the first two.56
Libet (1999) proved through experiments “that people become aware of the intention to act after (350-400 ms, to be exact) the brain has readied itself to act and before ((200 ms) motor activity.”57 This finding supports the hypothesis that people have free will and can choose to not act upon an intention, thus, implying that individuals have the opportunity to better control their behavior and even change the brain itself through mindfulness practice.58 Thus, batterers consciously make a choice to use violence and are not helpless in the face of external stimuli.
Dispenza affirms, “We are in completely new territory in our brain, and because we are in new territory we are re-wiring the brain, literally reconnecting to a new concept. Then, ultimately, it changes us from the inside out;;” rhetorically adding, “If I change my mind will I change my 53 (Austin, 1999, p. 654) choices? If I change my choices will my life change?”59 Dr. Wayne Dyer, a popular proponent of self-development, professes that we are in control of our thoughts and since our feelings come from our thoughts then we are capable of controlling our feelings as well. Similar to Buddhist psychology, which has always stressed the importance of emotional self-regulation and development, Dyer states, “Simply put, you believe that things or people make you unhappy, but this is not accurate. You make yourself unhappy because of the thoughts that you have about...your life.”60 Dyer exposes the phenomenon that people often blame their “uncontrollable nature” for their unhappiness. Hence, it is no surprise that he recommends twice-daily meditation practice. “Becoming a free and healthy person involves learning to think differently. Once you can change your thoughts, your new feelings will begin to emerge, and you will have taken the first step on the road to your personal freedom.”61 Batterers may attribute their abusive behavior to factors such as provocation from the victim or a history of being abusive or abused. Therefore, it is crucial that batterers learn to think differently, and regulate themselves emotionally so that they change both their emotional and physical responses.
The thing that most people don't realize is that when they understand that they are addicted to emotions, it is not just psychological, it's biochemical...We have been conditioned to believe that the external world is more real than the internal world. This new model of science is just the opposite, it says what is happening within us will create what is happening outside of us.62
With this understanding, it becomes clear that domestic violence batterers, as we shall explore in the next chapter, abuse, in part, because they are addicted to chemicals that are released during certain emotional responses. Therefore, in order for a batterer to stop battering, he must change not just his perceptions, but also himself on a cellular level. As the studies have shown, this transformation is possible through meditation.