But this had also another plural, thās (modern those). The old plural of that was tha (Middle
Those borrowed from this.
English tho or thow): consequently tho (plural of that) and those (plural of this) became
confused, and it was forgotten that those was really the plural of this; and in Modern English we speak of these as the
plural of this, and those as the plural of that.
COMPARISON.
Com
1 p
5 a
5. rison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.
When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between them as to
Meaning of comparison.
size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a cow is larger than a sheep, gold is heavier than
iron, a sapphire is bluer than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, we do so by
means of their qualities,—cow and sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of heaviness,
or weight, etc.,—but not the same degree, or amount, of the quality.
The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed
thought, great, giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" "the largest soul."
Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."
The
1 r
5e
6 .are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for
Words that cannot be compared.
example,—
His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms, whose favorite pupil he
was.—Thackeray.
A main difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own affair or not.—Emerson
It was his business to administer the law in its final and closest application to the offender—
Hawthorne.
Freedom is a perpetual, organic, universal institution, in harmony with the Constitution of the United
States.—Seward.
So with the words sole, sufficient, infinite, immemorial, indefatigable, indomitable, supreme, and many others.
It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.
Com
15 p
7 a
. rison means the changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or
Definition.
amounts in quantity.
The
1 r
5e
8 . are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, expressing a greater degree of
The two forms.
quality; and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality.
These are called degrees of comparison.
These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the positive degree.
The
1 c
5 o
9. mparative is formed by adding -er, and the superlative by adding -est, to the simple form; as, red, redder, reddest;
blue, bluer, bluest; easy, easier, easiest.
Side
1
6 b
0.y side with these inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions
Substitute for inflection in
making use of the adverbs more and most. These are often useful as alternative with the
comparison.
inflected forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.
They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century later.
The
1
6E
1 n
. glish is somewhat capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with
Which rule,— -er and -est or more
more and most, so that no inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative
and most?
and the superlative.
The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of two syllables add -er and -est; and other words
are preceded by more and most.
But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for variety of expression.
To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, examine the following taken at random:—
From Thackeray: "The handsomest wives;" "the immensest quantity of thrashing;" "the wonderfulest little shoes;" "more
odd, strange, and yet familiar;" "more austere and holy."
From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and patientest fusing;" "distantest relationships;" "sorrowfulest spectacles."
Carlyle uses beautifulest, mournfulest, honestest, admirablest, indisputablest, peaceablest, most small, etc.
These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but more and most are frequently used with monosyllables.
Exp
1 re
6 s
2. sions are often met with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent
usually to very with the positive degree; as,—
To this the Count offers a most wordy declaration of the benefits conferred by Spain.—The Nation, No
1507
In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a most genuine substance.—Carlyle
A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was most finished, polished, witty, easy,
quiet.—Thackeray
He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which hung behind in the queerest way.
—Id.
"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on his knees, and kissing the hand of his
dearest mistress.—Id.
Amo
1 n
6 g
3. the variously derived adjectives now in our language there are some which may
Adjectives irregularly compared.
always be recognized as native English. These are adjectives irregularly compared.
Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but they are essentially the same forms that have
lived for so many centuries.
The following lists include the majority of them:—
LIST I.
1. Good or wel
Better
Best
2. Evil, bad, il
Worse
Worst
3. Little
Less, lesser
Least
4. Much or many More
Most
5. Old
Elder, older
Eldest, oldest
6. Nigh
Nigher
Nighest, next
7. Near
Nearer
Nearest
8. Far
Farther, further Farthest, furthest
9. Late
Later, latter
Latest, last
10. Hind
Hinder
Hindmost, hindermost
LIST II.
These have no adjective positive:—
1. [In]
Inner
Inmost, innermost
Outmost, outermost
2. [Out] Outer, utter Utmost, uttermost
3. [Up] Upper
Upmost, uppermost
LIST III.
A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:—
After
Over
Under
Nether
Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.
(1)
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6 h
4 e
. word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive to
List I.
better and best. There was an old comparative bet, which has gone out of use; as in the
sentence (14th century), "Ich singe bet than thu dest" (I sing better than thou dost). The superlative I form was betst,
which has softened to the modern best.
(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to worse, worst; but later bad and ill were borrowed from the Norse, and used as
positives to the same comparative and superlative. Worser was once used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,—
O, throw away the worser part of it.—Hamlet.
(3) Little is used as positive to less, least, though from a different root. A double comparative, lesser, is often used; as,
—
We have it in a much lesser degree.—Matthew Arnold.
Thrust the lesser half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti. —Lamb.
(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former times much was used in the sense of large, great,
and was the same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes a mickle." Its spelling has been micel, muchel,
moche, much, the parallel form mickle being rarely used.
The meanings greater, greatest, are shown in such phrases as,—
The more part being of one mind, to England we sailed.—Kingsley.
The most part kept a stolid indifference.—Id.
The latter, meaning the largest part, is quite common.
(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than older, oldest. A few other words with the vowel o had similar change in the
comparative and superlative, as long, strong, etc.; but these have followed old by keeping the same vowel o in all the
forms, instead of lenger, strenger, etc., the old forms.
(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, except the form next; but originally the comparison was
nigh, near, next. In the same way the word high had in Middle English the superlative hexte.
By and by the comparative near was regarded as a positive form, and on it were built a double comparative nearer, and
the superlative nearest, which adds -est to what is really a comparative instead of a simple adjective.
(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, coming about as follows: further really belongs to
another series,—forth, further, first. First became entirely detached from the series, and furthest began to be used to
follow the comparative further; then these were used as comparative and superlative of far.
The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative farrer, farrest. In imitation of further, furthest, th came into the
others, making the modern farther, farthest. Between the two sets as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction,
except perhaps further is more used than farther in the sense of additional; as, for example,—
When that evil principle was left with no further material to support it.—Hawthorne.
(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since later, latest, came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two
series. Later and latest have the true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time; latter and last are used in
speaking of succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with the word late.
(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form hindmost is really a double superlative, since the m is
f o r -ma, an old superlative ending, to which is added -ost, doubling the inflection. Hind-er-m-ost presents the
combination comparative + superlative + superlative.
In L
1 is
6 t
5
. II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are adjectives, but they have no
List II.
adjective positives.
The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.
The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of comparative added to double-superlative inflection.
Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the inner splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated
into the inmost heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the outermost developments of a man;" "The outer is of the
day;" "far-seeing as the sun, the upper light of the world;" "the innermost moral soul;" "their utmost exertion."
The
1
6 e
6. nding -most is added to some words that are not usually adjectives, or have no
-Most added to other words.
comparative forms.
There, on the very topmost twig, sits that ridiculous but sweet-singing bobolink.—H. W. Beecher.
Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of family in northernmost
Spain.—De Quincey.
Highest and midmost, was descried The royal banner floating wide.—Scott.
The
1
6 a
7 d
. jectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in List II. in having no adjective
List III.
positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative force, being merely
descriptive.
Her bows were deep in the water, but her after deck was still dry.—Kingsley.
Her, by the by, in after years I vainly endeavored to trace.—De Quincey.
The upper and the under side of the medal of Jove.—Emerson.
Have you ever considered what a deep under meaning there lies in our custom of strewing flowers?—
Ruskin.
Perhaps he rose out of some nether region.—Hawthorne.
Over is rarely used separately as an adjective.
CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.
Som
1 e
6
8.care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an adjective. In a series of
Think what each adjective belongs
adjectives in the same sentence, all may belong to the same noun, or each may modify a
to.
different word or group of words.
For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that
all four adjectives after was modify the noun voice. But in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual
incomparable decision," decision is modified by the adjective incomparable; usual modifies incomparable decision, not
decision alone; and the pronoun her limits usual incomparable decision.
Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the same rank; those modifying different words or word groups are
said to be adjectives of different rank. This distinction is valuable in a study of punctuation.
Exercise.
In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:—
1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black eyes, it invested them with a strange
remoteness and intangibility.—Hawthorne.
2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of Christendom a college which is positively
Christian must be controlled by some religious denomination.—Noah Porter.
3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood backward to her heart.—Mrs. Stowe.
4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical,
philosophical, and moral truth.—A. H. Stephens
5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgment of the truths
upon which our system rests?—Id.
6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths. —
Hawthorne.
7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural entertainment that there is to be ice
cream produces an immediate and profound impression.—Holmes.
ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES.
By a
1
6 c
9 o
. nvenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king,"
in which then is an adverb, we may say "the then king," making then an adjective. Other instances are,—
My then favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.—Ruskin.
Our sometime sister, now our queen.—Shakespeare
Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the then and still owners. —Trollope.
The seldom use of it.—Trench.
For thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities.—Bible.
HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.
Sinc
1 e
7
0 a
. djectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few have number, the method of
What to tell in parsing.
parsing is simple.
In parsing an adjective, tell—
(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.
(2) Its number, if it has number.
(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.
(4) What word or words it modifies.
MODEL FOR PARSING.
These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.
These points out what truths, therefore demonstrative; plural number, having a singular, this; cannot be compared;
modifies the word truths.
Unfamiliar describes truths, therefore descriptive; not inflected for number; compared by prefixing more and most;
positive degree; modifies truths.
Exercise.
Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:—
1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to Eliza.
2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched and creaked.
3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end by a direct, frank, manly way.
4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.
5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the
plain.
6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible enemy, whose grasp each moment grew
more fierce and secure, and most astounding were those frightful yells.
7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it to the fullest extent.
8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.
9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, seventy-five drachmas.
10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or her birthday, on which occasion the
elders of the family were bound to be absent.
11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture,
those dogs in the yard, are immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.
12. I know not what course others may take.
13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.
14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!
15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.
16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?
17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been more to him than all the men in his
country.
18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.
19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward fortunes of those he loves, yet are
remarkably self-forgetful.
20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.
21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.
22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.
23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.
24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.
25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit there is in being serviceable.
26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and hates nothing so much as pretenders.
27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, as for armies that were too many
by half.
28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the same love to France would have
been nurtured.
29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?
30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to us, is the settlement of our own country.
31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all directions, and many poles supported
the lower ones.
32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.
33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most unfavorable position, suggests such
thoughts as these, it is so noble a fruit.
34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no literary man.
35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!
36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.
37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.
ARTICLES.
The
1 r
7e
1 . is a class of words having always an adjectival use in general, but with such subtle functions and various
meanings that they deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary brick house on the road, with
an ordinary little garden," the words the and an belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot be accurately
placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.
172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective (sē, sēo, ðat, later thē, thēo,
Their origin.
that) which was also an article in Old English. In Middle English the became an article, and
that remained a demonstrative adjective.
An or a came from the old numeral ān, meaning one.
Our expressions the one, the other, were formerly that one, that other; the latter is still
Two relics.
preserved in the expression, in vulgar English, the tother. Not only this is kept in the Scotch
dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as the tane, the tother, or the tane, the tither; for example,—
We ca' her sometimes the tane, sometimes the tother.—Scott.
Ord
1 in
7 a
3. rily an is used before vowel sounds, and a before consonant sounds. Remember that
An before vowel sounds, a before
a vowel sound does not necessarily mean beginning with a vowel, nor does consonant sound
consonant sounds.
mean beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not coincide closely with
the sound of words. Examples: "a house," "an orange," "a European," "an honor," "a yelling crowd."
Man
1 y
7
4 w
. riters use an before h, even when not silent, when the word is not accented on the
An with consonant sounds.
first syllable.
An historian, such as we have been attempting to describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.—
Macaulay.
The Persians were an heroic people like the Greeks.—Brewer.
He [Rip] evinced an hereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business.—Irving.
An habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and images.—Coleridge.
An hereditary tenure of these offices.—Thomas Jefferson.
An a
1 r
7 t
5i.cle is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot be used alone, but always joins to
Definition.
a substantive word to denote a particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual
of a group or class.
Artic
1 l
7e
6s
. are either definite or indefinite.
Kinds.
The is the definite article, since it points out a particular individual, or group, or class.
An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of a group or class of things.
An and a are different forms of the same word, the older ān.
USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
The
1
7m
7 o
. st common use of the definite article is to refer to an object that the listener or reader
Reference to a known object.
is already acquainted with; as in the sentence,—
Don't you remember how, when the dragon was infesting the neighborhood of Babylon, the citizens
used to walk dismally out of evenings, and look at the valleys round about strewed with the bones?—
Thackeray.
NOTE.—This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is introduced by a, and afterwards
referred to by the:—
By and by a giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on the ice near Audhumla.... The giant
frowned when he saw the glitter of the golden hair.—Heroes Of Asgard.
The
1
7 is
8. often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the word river is omitted, as "the
With names of rivers.
Mississippi," "the Ohio," the article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other
geographical division, is referred to.
No wonder I could face the Mississippi with so much courage supplied to me.—Thackeray.
The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest of the Missouri.—G. Bancroft.
Whe
1 n
7
9 t
. he is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of the noun by directing attention to
To call attention to attributes.