[1]. Federal Energy Administration, under direction of National Science Foundation, “Project Independence Blueprint,” Solar Energy PB 248 507 (reproduced by National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA, Nov. 1974), pp. I-3, I-20-22.
[2]. See Robert W. Righter, Wind Energy in America: A History (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), pp. 44–49 and 106.
[3]. Palmer C. Putnam, “Wind Power: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow,” NASA CP-2230 (Proceedings of a workshop sponsored by U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Technology Division, and NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH, July 28–30, 1981).
[4]. Righter, Wind Energy in America, pp. 126–137.
[5]. “MOD-0A 200 Kilowatt Wind Turbine Generator Design and Analysis Report,” executive summary, DOE/NASA/0163-1; NASA CR-165127; AESD-TME-3051 (Aug. 1980), p. 2.
[6]. In 2007, Purdue University recognized Joseph Savino’s work on wind energy and other accomplishments during his 41 years with NASA by awarding him its Outstanding Mechanical Engineer Award.
[7]. Ronald L. Thomas and Joseph M. Savino, “Status of Wind Energy Conversion,” NASA TM-X-71523 (technical paper presented at RANN Symposium Sponsored by the National Science Foundation, Washington, DC, Nov. 18–20, 1973), pp. 1–5.
[8]. R. Thomas, R. Puthoff, and J. Savino, “Plans and Status of the NASA-Lewis Research Center Wind Energy Project,” (technical paper to be presented at the Joint Power Conference cosponsored by the Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers and American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Portland, OR, Sept. 28–Oct. 1, 1975), p. 1.
[9]. Richard L. Puthoff, “Fabrication and Assembly of the ERDA/NASA 100-Kilowatt Experimental Wind Turbine,” NASA TM-X-3390 (1976), pp. 1-9; and Thomas, Puthoff, and Savino, “Plans and Status of the NASA-Lewis Research Center Wind Energy Project,” pp. 3–4.
[10]. Ronald L. Thomas and Richard M. Donovon, “Large Wind Turbine Generators.” NASA TM-73767 (1978), pp. 3–5.
[11]. “MOD-0A 200 Kilowatt Wind Turbine Generator Design and Analysis Report,” executive summary, DOE/NASA/0163-1; NASA CR-165127; AESD-TME-3051 (Aug. 1980), p. 1.
[12]. Louis V. Divone, “Evolution of the Modern Wind Turbine,” ch. 3, in David A. Spera, ed., Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts of Wind Turbine Engineering (New York: ASME Press, 1994) pp. 116–117.
[13]. D.A. Spera, L.A. Viterna, T.R. Richards, and H.E. Neustadter, “Preliminary Analysis of Performance and Loads Data from the 2-Megawatt MOD-1 Wind Turbine Generator,” NASA TM-81408 (1979), pp. 1–3; L.A. Viterna, “The NASA-LeRC Wind Turbine Sound Prediction Code,” presented at Second DOE/NASA Wind Turbine Dynamics Workshop, Cleveland, Feb. 24–26, 1981.
[14]. Richard R. Douglas, “Large Wind Turbine Design Characteristics and R&D Requirements,” NASA CP-2106; DOE Publication CONF-7904111 (workshop held at Cleveland, OH, Apr. 24–26, 1979), pp. 61–65.
[15]. Darrell H. Baldwin and Jerry Kennard, “Development of Large, Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines,” NASA TM-86950 (1985), pp. 3–5 and Table 1.
[16]. Ibid., p. 4; and telephone interview of Larry Viterna by author, Apr. 27, 2009.
[17]. Divone, “Evolution of Modern Wind Turbines,” ch. 3, in Spera, Wind Turbine Technology, p. 130.
[18]. General Electric Company, Advanced Energy Programs Department, “MOD-5A Wind Turbine Generator Program Design Report,” vol. 1, executive summary, NASA CR-174734 (1984), pp. 1–6.
[19]. Boeing Aerospace Company, “MOD-5B Wind Turbine System Final Report,” vol. 1, executive summary, NASA CR-180896 (1988), p. 2-2, and vol. 3, “Acceptance Testing,” NASA CR-180898 (1988), pp. v-vi, 1-1, 8-1, and B-1.
[20]. Divone, “Evolution of Modern Wind Turbines,” in Spera, Wind Turbine Technology, pp. 130–131.
[21]. R.R. Douglas, Boeing Engineering and Construction Company, “Conceptual Design of the 7 Megawatt Mod-5B Wind Turbine Generator Final Report,” N83-19272 (1982), pp. 1–7; and Boeing Aerospace Company, “Mod-5B Wind Turbine System Final Report,” vol. 3, pp. v, vi, 1-1, 8-1, and B-1.
[22]. “Mod-5B Wind Turbine Generator Final Report,” vol. 1, pp. 7-1 and 7-2.
[23]. Douglass, “Conceptual Design of the 7 Megawatt Mod-5 Wind Turbine Generator,” p. 6.
[24]. Boeing Aerospace Company, “Mod-5B Wind Turbine System Final Report,” vol. 1, executive summary, NASA CR-180896 (Mar. 1988), p. 8-1.
[25]. Darrell H. Baldwin and Bradford S. Linscott, “The Federal Wind Program at NASA Lewis Research Center,” NASA TM-83480 (1983), pp. 5–9.
[26]. W.R. Batesole, Kaman Aerospace Corporation, “Fiberglass Composite Blades for the 2 MW Mod-1 Wind Turbine Generator,” NASA CR-2230, Cleveland, OH, July 28–30, 1981, pp. 215–226.
[27]. Viterna and David C. Janetzke, “Theoretical and Experimental Power From Large Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines,” NASA TM-82944 (Sept. 1982); and “Wind Energy Reaps Rewards,” NASA release dated May 31, 2006, http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/technologies/wind_turbines_prt.htm, accessed Aug. 20, 2009.
[28]. “ERAST: Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology,” NASA FS-2002-08-020 DFRC, pp. 1–3.
[29]. Mishap Investigation Board, “Investigation of the Helios Prototype Aircraft Mishap,” vol. 1 (Mishap Report), NASA (Jan. 2004), p. 16.
[30]. “Pathfinder Solar-Powered Aircraft” NASA, Dryden Flight Research Center Fact Sheet, FS-034.
[31]. “Global Stratospheric Change: Requirements for a Very-High Altitude Aircraft for Atmospheric Research,” (workshop held in Truckee, CA, July 15–16, 1989), NASA CP-10041 (1989), p. xi.
[32]. “Global Stratospheric Change,” workshop held in Truckee, CA, p. 2.
[33]. The ERAST program was the first large NASA program to use a Joint Sponsored Research Agreement. The JSRA type arrangement was first researched as a new form of contracting option in the 1980s at NASA Ames. Ames had previously used this type of joint arrangement on three smaller projects. Jack Glazer, a NASA Ames attorney, started research in 1988 on the possibility of using the “Other Transaction Authority” clause in the Space Act of 1958 for application to collaborative projects. Glazer recommended creating AmTech as a nonprofit company to document JSRA legal and policy issues and to establish prototype projects. (See “The Promise of ERAST,” NASA Dryden, Oct. 2004.)
[34]. “Joint Sponsored Research Agreement: Environmental Research Aircraft & Sensor Technology: ‘ERAST Alliance’ for High Altitude, Long Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicles,” (Office of Aeronautics, NASA, Aug. 1994), pp. 1 and 39.
[35]. Ibid. p. 44.
[36]. “NASA Dryden, AeroVironment Sign Solar/Electric Aircraft Pact,” NASA Dryden News Release 02-48 (Aug. 19, 2002).
[37]. Mishap Investigation Board, “Investigation of Helios Prototype Aircraft Mishap,” p. 16.
[38]. Alexander Laufer, Todd Post, Edward J. Hoffman, and Ronald A. Heifotz, Shared Voyage: Learning and Unlearning from Remarkable Projects (Washington, DC: NASA History Division, 2005), ch. 4, “Flying High on Spirit: The Pathfinder Solar-Powered Airplane,” p. 125.
[39]. Ibid., p. 130.
[40]. Jay Levine, ed., “The X-Press,” vol. 44, Issue 2, Dryden Flight Center (May 8, 2002), p. 3.
[41]. Levine, ed., “The X-Press,” vol. 45, Issue 4, Dryden Flight Center (June 2003).
[42]. Laufer, et al., Shared Voyage, section 2, ch. 4, p. 129.
[43]. Ibid., p.131.
[44]. Derek L. Lisoski and Mark B. Tischler, “Solar Powered Stratosphere Research Aircraft—Flight Test and Systems Identification,” presented at the RTO SCI Symposium held in Madrid, Spain, May 5–7, 1998, and published in RTO MP-11, p. 27-4.
[45]. Laufer, et al., Shared Voyage, section 4, ch. 4, p. 224, and information from John Del Frate.
[46]. Lisoski and Tischler, “Solar Powered Stratospheric Research Aircraft—Flight Test and Systems Identification,” pp. 27-1 through 27-5; and “Pathfinder Solar-Powered Aircraft,” NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, FS-034.
[47]. Review comments of Del Frate to author, Aug. 4, 2009.
[48]. As Del Frate recalls: “Flight termination can vary from aircraft to aircraft. We chose to not cripple the aircraft if we had a problem, but rather we would cut power to the motors and use a small chute off-center to provide asymmetrical drag to put PF into a descending spiral in order to not destroy the aircraft. As a result, the wind aloft could carry us quite a ways downwind.”
[49]. Del Frate and Gary B. Cosentino, “Recent Flight Test Experience with Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center,” NASA TM-1998-206546 (Apr. 1998), p. 5.
[50]. Ibid.
[51]. “NASA Dryden Fact Sheet—Pathfinder Solar–Powered Aircraft,” Dryden Flight Research Center, FS-034, pp. 2–3.
[52]. See, for example, “Pathfinder Solar-Powered Aircraft Begins Science Missions,” NASA Release: 97-45, http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/NewsReleases/1997/97-45.html,accessed Aug. 20, 2009.
[53]. Stephen S. Wegener and James Brass, “Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology—New Technologies for Earth Science,” Earth Science Enterprise, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics, p. 177.
[54]. S.M. Schoenung and S.S. Wegener, “Meteorological and Remote Sensing Applications of High Altitude Unmaned Aerial Vehicles,” presented at the Fourth International Airborne Remote Sensing Conference and Exposition/21st Canadian Symposium on Remote Sensing, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, June 21–24, 1999, sections 1.0 (“Introduction”) and 2.0 (“Applications”).
[55]. Del Frate, e-mail to author, Aug. 4, 2009.
[56]. See “Originating Technology/NASA Contribution,” pp. 66–67, Environment and Resources Management.
[57]. Michael A. Dornheim, “The Quest for Perpetual Flight: Special Fuel Cells Key to Months-long Flight,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (Feb. 28, 2000), pp. 58–61; telephone interview of Del Frate by author (Apr. 27, 2009), along with followup e-mail.
[58]. Dornheim, “The Quest for Perpetual Flight,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, pp. 58–61.
[59]. Telephone interview of Del Frate by author (Apr. 2, 2009), and followup e-mail.
[60]. “Centurion,” NASA Dryden Flight Research Center Fact Sheet FS-056.
[61]. NASA never tested the Helios configuration (both HP-01 and HP-03) at Edwards, only testing Centurion. (Information from Del Frate, Aug. 4, 2009.)
[62]. “Helios Prototype,” Dryden Flight Research Center Fact Sheet FS-068.
[63]. John D. Hunley and Yvonne Kellogg, compilers, Proceedings of addresses, sessions and workshops of the NASA ERAST Exclusive Preview sponsored by NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA, Oct. 13, 1999, ERAST: Scientific Applications and Technology Commercialization (Sept. 2000), p. 4.
[64]. Ibid., p. 6.
[65]. Mishap Investigation Board, “Investigation of the Helios Prototype Aircraft Mishap,” passim.
[66]. Ibid., p. 45.
[67]. Ibid., pp. 10, 54, 87–89, and Table 10.1.
[68]. Ibid., pp. 10, 89, and Table 10-1. Both HP-01 and HP-03 had a total of five under-wing pods; the HP-03 configuration replaced the original center pod with the fuel cell pod.
[69]. Ibid., p. 10.
[70]. D.J. Bents, “Solar Airplanes and Regenerative Fuel Cells,” presentation to the 43rd annual I.R.I.S. show in Mayfield Heights, OH, Oct. 9, 2007.