Optoelectronic Devices and Properties
range of action. So, Laser scanning systems designers always must to take in mind this
fact, and to provide additional corrective measures for better system application.
•
Due to non-uniform uncertainty distribution in instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV), as
well in full field-of-view, it desirable the optimal geometrical design of the
optoelectronic system field-of-view strictly linked to the certain practical application
(i.e. static monitoring of large civil engineering structures; fast dynamic monitoring of
the certain sector in indoor or outdoor autonomous robot navigation; medical scanning
of the biological object with reduced movement activity; visual control of surfaces in
automated assembly; etc.). In other words, the spatial sector under inspection must to
be located in a smallest error sector of total TVS field-of-view. This requirement in
general coincides with the basic theoretical concepts of the electro-optical system design
(Fig. 5.1 on p.63 in (Wyatt, C.L., 1991)). It is expedient to note, that optimal geometrical
design also permits sometimes increase a computation speed for used trigonometric
mathematical formalism (for example, because multiplication or division for 1 is an
empty operation).
•
The use of the theoretical method and special circuit of the signal energetic center
search permits us eliminate totally one of the most complex sources of uncertainty. It is
uncertainty caused by irregular form and variable size of the projected light spot. It is
especially important note that the variable size of the projected light spot has the non-
linear relation to the distance between scanner and object surface. The uses of our
theoretical method permits completely exclude this complex dependence and to
establish the uncertainty rate only as a rigorous function of internal circuit parameters.
•
The optimal design of the TVS mechanical part permits significant decrease of
undesirable axial play, torque and wear. Mentioned above actions implementation
gives a possibility to possibility of using an electric motor rated with lower torque,
voltage and current per phase consumption for full system power consumption
reduction and extended battery life which is essential for mobile applications.
•
The typical challenging point of normal TVS functioning is the presence of input noise.
As shown in the present paper, it is always necessary to realize an electronic filtration of
such noise and parameters of such noise are mostly dependant on scanning velocity.
Unfortunately, for this particular task only experimental test of electromechanical laser
scanner prototype shows the presence of noise of the complex nature in a
photodetecting circuit and its physical characteristics. It is caused by cross-action of
mechanical vibration and, properly, optical noise. However, the special filter design for
different scanning velocities is very similar and regular in its procedure, as it was
shown in examples described in subsections 7.1 and 7.2.
•
Theoretical method of robust photometer circuit introduced on photometer circuits
operational amplifiers used for photodiode monitoring can permits to detect a weak
signal which never been detected before in electromechanical scanners.
10. Acknowledgements
This work has been partially supported by the Autonomous University of Baja California,
Mexico (projects No. 2352, in 2003-2004 and N2386, in 2005-2006) and the Ministry of Science
and Innovation (MICINN) of Spain in 2009-2010 under the research project TEC2007-63121,
and the Universidad Politecnica de Madrid. The authors would like to thank to various
international congresses organizers, where the different aspects of the present work were
Electromechanical 3D Optoelectronic Scanners:
Resolution Constraints and Possible Ways of Improvement
579
presented, for fruitful discussions and valuable remarks. The authors dedicate this work to
the grateful memory of Dr. Valentin Yevstaf’yevich Tyrsa; and would like to thank to Prof.
Christofer Druzgalsky and Jason McDowell (Electrical Engineering Department of
California State University, Long-Beach, USA) for their invaluable assistance with English
language. We appreciate also Dr. Daniel Hernandez-Balbuena’s invaluable assistance in a
part of discussion about uncertainty of the repetitive cyclic measurements.
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26
Employment of Pulsed-Laser Deposition for
Optoelectronic Device Fabrication
Ullrich Bruno
Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials & Manufacturing Directorate,
Wright Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7707
USA
1. Introduction
Thin-film preparation and its controlled mastery – specifically of semiconductors – became
imperative for modern devices including all kind of applications such as electronics,
optoelectronics, photonics, and superconductivity. Many methods and their technological
applications have been explored and studied during the last decades (George, 1992, Smith,
1995, Ullrich et al. 1988, Bouchenaki et al., 1991 a, Bouchenaki et al., 1991 b, Ullrich et al.,
1992, Ullrich and Kobayashi, 1995): Vacuum evaporation, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE),
spray pyrolysis, closed-space deposition, sputtering, and pulsed-laser deposition (PLD).
The difference between the latter and the aforementioned methods is that the film
deposition process takes place only by photons, which naturally do not effect, alter or
contaminate the ambient conditions of the substrate, which is kept in vacuum (typically 10-6
torr≈1.3×10-4 Pa). This feature puts PLD on top of the stoichiometry maintaining thin-film
deposition methods. However, theory does not go along with reality all the time because
the intrinsic atomic target features might influence the stoichiometry as well – for example
PLD of CdS leads most of the time to slightly Cd enriched films. It is presumed that the
heavier Cd atoms displace some of the S atoms from their designated target-to-substrate
transfer path. This brings us to the basics of PLD – how does it work? The ablating light,
which is provided by a pulsed laser, hits the substrate and, in case the convolution of laser
fluence (i.e., the incident laser energy by illuminated area and pulse) and absorption is
sufficiently high, material is ablated from the target. As an example, the deposition rates
vs. fluence for different laser wavelengths of GaAs are shown in Fig. 1. The threshold
fluence at 355 nm and 532 nm is at around 0.3 J/cm2, whereas at 1064 nm, the ablation
onset requires higher fluence of approximately 0.5 J/cm2 due to weaker absorption of the
infrared laser pulses. The qualitative appearance of the rates is the same at all wavelengths.
Beyond threshold, the inset in Fig. 1 shows that the ablation rate exponentially increases
with the fluence ( F), i.e., ∝exp( kF), where k=6.0, 6.7, and 5.9, at 355 nm, 532 nm, and 1064
nm, respectively, followed by a fairly linear growth, which finally turns to a flat saturating
rate of the ablated material. However, Fig. 2 shows that the deposition rate depends on the
material – apparently the same fluence ablates more material from the ionically bonded II-
VI compound CdS than from the covalently bonded III-V compound GaAs. The deposition
rates have been recorded with the Sloan 200 monitor using a quartz crystal in the vacuum
chamber.
584
Optoelectronic Devices and Properties
20
355 nm
in)m 15
m/n
532 nm
ate ( 10
1064 nm
r
12
on
n)
532 nm
10
mi
iti
m/
8
355 nm
5
ate (n
6
1064 nm
r
epos
4
D
2
epositionD
00.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0
Fluence (J/cm2)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Fluence (J/cm2)
Fig. 1. GaAs deposition rates for the laser lines at 355 nm, 532 nm, and 1064 nm. The inset
shows the threshold in detail
50
) inm 40
CdS
m/
(n
30
te
ra
20
GaAs
tion
osi
10
p
De
0 0
1
2
3
4
5
Fluence (J/cm2)
Fig. 2. Comparison of the GaAs and CdS deposition rates at 532 nm
The thin-film CdS sample was formed using the PLD setup employed to form the GaAs
films (Ullrich et al., 2003). The CdS ablation was carried out with a Neodymium doped