of Avenues of Approach
based forecasts by combining available forecasts with field observations (local temperature, wind, precipitation, cloud patterns, barometric pressure, and surrounding terrain). Forecasting mountain weather from the field improves accuracy and enhances the ability to exploit opportunities offered by the weather, while minimizing its adverse effects (see Appendix B).
TROOPS AND SUPPORT AVAILABLE
2-17. Commanders must assess the operational and tactical implications of the restrictive environment on mobility, protection, firepower, and logistics.
The complex task of arranging activities in time, space, and purpose requires commanders to fully understand the impact of elevation, weather, and visibility on the capabilities of his subordinate elements and relative combat power. Mountainous terrain and weather can greatly enhance the relative combat power of defending forces and, conversely, it can drastically reduce those of the attacking forces. For example, an infantry battalion may be inadequate to defeat a defending infantry company in the mountains. Instead, an infantry battalion may only be capable of defeating a well-positioned infantry platoon. However, commanders must carefully consider each unique situation and weigh all tangible and intangible aspects of combat power (maneuver, firepower, leadership, protection, and information) when comparing strengths and determining the forces necessary to accomplish the mission.
2-18. Commanders must also assess the proper mix of heavy and light forces that capitalizes on the unique strengths that each type of force can bring to mountain operations while minimizing their limitations. While generally complicating command and control, an appropriate mix allows commanders more flexibility in the synchronization of their operations. Additionally, the difficulty providing combat support and combat service support for mountain operations must be evaluated to determine if the proportion of support troops to combat troops is sufficient.
2-19. Prior to and throughout an operation, commanders must continually assess the effect that the rugged mountain environment and sustained combat operations has on the ability of their soldiers to accomplish the mission.
Chapter 2
Commanders may need to slow the pace of their operation, transition to the defense for short periods, or rotate units to ensure that their soldiers are physically capable of striking effectively at decisive times and locations. Too often, commanders consider only the operational readiness (OR) rate of equipment and logistics levels when determining their overall ability to continue offensive actions. Failure to consider this intangible human aspect may result in increased loss of lives and mission failure.
2-20. Vertical operations are an integral part of mountain operations and are one means to improve the success of decisive engagements. Commanders must review the state of training of their units to ensure they are adequately prepared to maneuver and fight at various elevations. Increased requirements for aviation support require aviation units to be capable of operating in the specific mountain environment. Units must also have sufficient numbers of pathfinders and trained air assault personnel to select and mark landing zones (LZs) and prepare sling loads.
TIME AVAILABLE
2-21. In the mountains, proper tim-
ing is fundamental to creating oppor-
• Adaptability of plans to the
tunities to fight the enemy on favor-
terrain and varying weather
able terms. Restrictive terrain,
• Increased time needed to
weather, the accumulation of chance
conduct reconnaissance,
errors, unexpected difficulties, and
execute movements, and
the confusion of battle increase the
synchronize events on the
time necessary to assemble, deploy,
battlefield
move, converge, and mass combat
• Significant variance in the
power, effectively decreasing the
number of hours of
amount of time available to plan and
visibility with season and
prepare. To optimize the time avail-
elevation
able, commanders must continuously
Figure 2-4. Factors Affecting
evaluate the impact of reduced mo-
Time Available
bility caused by the weather and ter-
rain. At times, commanders may need to conduct a tactical pause to facilitate the concentration of combat power at a decisive point. However, they must consider time with respect to the enemy as time available is always related to the enemy's ability to execute his own plan, prepare, and execute cycle. Figure 2-4 summarizes the time considerations that are different from or greater than those encountered on flatter terrain.
CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS
2-22. Generally, civilian population centers will be located at the lower elevations of Level I close to sources of water and along major lines of communications. Refugees and displaced civilians may increase congestion on the already limited road and trail networks normally found in mountainous environments, further complicating maneuver and sustaining operations.
2-23. Commanders must also consider the impact of operations on the often-limited civilian resources available in the mountains. The wisdom of using local resources to lighten in-theater supply requirements must be balanced 2-9
against the impact on civilians and their local economy. While the purchase of goods and services from the local economy is generally welcomed, it may serve to inflate prices and make it impossible for local civilians to purchase their own scarce and needed supplies.
2-24. In mountainous regions, commanders often encounter a populace of di-verse political and ethnic orientation that may support, oppose, or be am-bivalent to US operations or the presence of US forces. Depending on friendly force objectives, commanders may conduct public relations, civil affairs, humanitarian assistance, and psychological operations (PSYOP) to influence perceptions and attitudes of neutral or uncommitted parties. Even if commanders choose not to commit resources to enlist civilian sympathy and support, they must still adjust their operations to minimize damage and loss of life to innocent civilians.
SECTION II – LEADERSHIP
2-25. To help ease their anxiety in combat, soldiers must have confidence in their leaders. This confidence may diminish rapidly unless leaders demonstrate the ability to lead over formidable terrain and under the most difficult weather conditions. Superficial knowledge of mountain warfare and ignorance or underestimation of mountain hazards and environmental effects may result in mission failure and the unnecessary loss of soldiers’ lives.
2-26. Effective leadership in mountain operations combines sound judgment with a thorough understanding of the characteristics of the mountain environment. Commanders must first develop flexible and adaptable leadership throughout the chain of command. They must then be able to understand and exploit the operational and tactical implications of the mountain environment, as well as its effects on personnel, equipment, and weapons. The keys to meeting this challenge are proper training and operational experience in the mountains. To fight effectively, leaders creatively exploit the opportunities offered by the mountain environment while minimizing the adverse effects it can have on their operations.
2-27. Leadership rapidly becomes the primary element of combat power on the mountain battlefield. Commanders must recognize the distinctive effects created by decentralization of command, develop a depth of leadership that forms the vital link to unity of effort, and organize and direct operations that require minimum intervention. While specific situations require different leadership styles and techniques, the nature of mountain warfare generally necessitates that commanders embrace the philosophy of command and control known as mission command (see FM 6-0). This type of command and control requires subordinates to make decisions rapidly within the framework of the commander's concept and intent. Commanders must be able to accept some measure of uncertainty, delegate, and trust and encourage subordinate leaders at all levels to use initiative and act alone to achieve the desired results, particularly when the situation changes and they lose contact with higher headquarters.
Chapter 2
SECTION III – COMMUNICATIONS
2-28. The communications means available to support operations in mountainous regions are the same as those to support operations in other regions of the world. However, rapid and reliable communications are especially difficult to achieve and maintain in mountainous areas. The mountainous environment requires electronic equipment that is light, rugged, portable and able to exploit the advantages of higher terrain. The combined effects of irregular terrain patterns, magnetic and ionospheric disturbances, cold, ice, and dampness on communications equipment increase operating, maintenance, and supply problems and require precise planning and extensive coordination.
COMBAT NET RADIO
SINGLE-CHANNEL GROUND AND AIRBORNE RADIO SYSTEMS (SINCGARS)
2-29. The Single-channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS) family of frequency modulation (FM) radios is good for the control of battalion and smaller-sized units operating in a mountainous environment (see FM 6-02.32 and FM 6-02.18). If available, hands-free radios, such as helmet-mounted radios, are an excellent means of communication for small unit tactics and close-in distances, particularly while negotiating rugged terrain. In colder environments, shortened battery life greatly reduces the reliability of manpacked systems that rely on constant voltage input to maintain maximum accuracy.
2-30. Since even a small unit may be spread over a large area, retransmission sites may be needed to maintain communications and increase range. These sites require extensive preparation and support to ensure the survival of personnel and the continued maintenance of equipment. Retransmission systems are often placed on the highest accessible terrain to afford them the best line-of-sight; however, through simple analysis, these locations are often predictable and make them more vulnerable to enemy interdiction. The importance and difficulty of maintaining adequate communications in mountainous terrain requires commanders to devote additional resources for the protection of these limited assets and operators skilled in the proper use of cover and concealment, noise and light discipline, and other operations security (OPSEC) measures.
2-31. Physical range limitations, difficulties in establishing line-of-sight paths due to intervening terrain, and limited retransmission capabilities often make it difficult to establish a brigade and larger-sized radio net. However, commanders can, if within range, enter subordinate nets and establish a temporary net for various contingencies. In the mountains or if the mobile subscriber equipment network is not yet fully developed, commanders should consider the increased need for the improved high frequency radio (IHFR) family of amplitude modulation (AM) radios and single-channel tactical satellite communications terminals for extended distances.
2-11
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (SATCOM)
2-32. Satellite communications
•
(SATCOM) terminals are light,
Greater freedom from siting
small, portable ground termi-
restrictions
•
nals that are able to communi-
Extended range, capacity, and
cate in spite of rugged terrain.
coverage
•
During operations in mountain-
Mobility and rapid employment
•
ous areas having little or no in-
Extremely high circuit reliability
frastructure to support com-
Figure 2-5. SATCOM Advantages
mand and control, satellite
communications become the primary means of communications. Single channel SATCOM are currently transmitted over the ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band and readily support forces operating in the mountains, while providing worldwide tactical communications, in-theater communications, combat net radio (CNR) range extension, and linkage between elements of long-range surveillance units (LRSUs) and Army special operations forces (ARSOF).
SATCOM can network with multiple users, communicate while enroute, penetrate foliage while on the ground, and has several other advantages making it an ideal system for mountain communications (see Figure 2-5).
However, limitations include restricted access, low-rate data communications, and lack of antijam capability. Commanders should review FM 6-02.11 for further information on the employment of SATCOM.
COMMAND AND CONTROL (C2) AIRCRAFT
2-33. Using C2 aircraft can assist the commander in overcoming ground mobility restrictions and may improve communications that would otherwise limit his ability to direct the battle. In the mountains, terrain masking, while making flight routing more difficult, may provide the degree of protection needed to allow an increased use of aircraft. To avoid radar or visual acquisition and to survive, C2 aircraft must use the same terrain flight techniques employed by other tactical aviation units. This flight method often degrades FM communications and reinforces the requirement for radio relay or retransmission sites.
ANTENNAS AND GROUNDS
2-34. Directional antennas, both bidirectional and unidirectional, may be needed to increase range and maintain radio communications. Although easy to fabricate, directional antennas are less flexible and more time-consuming to set up. Positioning of all antennas is also crucial in the mountains because moving an antenna even a small distance can significantly affect reception.
2-35. Antenna icing, a common occurrence at high elevations, significantly degrades communications. Ice may also make it difficult to extend or lower antennas, and the weight of ice buildup, combined with increased brittleness, may cause them to break. Antennas should have extra guy wires, supports, and anchor stakes to strengthen them to withstand heavy ice and wind loading. All large horizontal antennas should be equipped with a system of coun-terweights arranged to slacken before wire or poles break from the excess pressures of ice or wind. Soldiers may be able to remove wet snow and sleet that freezes to antennas by jarring their supports, or by attaching a hose to Chapter 2
the exhaust pipe of a vehicle and directing the hot air on the ice until it melts.
However, soldiers must exercise great care to ensure that the antenna is not damaged in their attempts to dislodge the ice.
2-36. Ground rods and guy wires are often difficult to drive into rocky and frozen earth. Mountain pitons are excellent anchors for antenna guys in this type of soil. In extreme cold, ropes can be frozen to the ground and guys tied to these anchor ropes. Adequate grounding is also difficult to obtain on frozen or rocky surfaces due to high electrical resistance. Where it is possible to install a grounding rod, it should be driven into the earth as deep as possible or through the ice on frozen lakes or rivers. Grounding in rocky soil may be improved by adding salt solutions to improve electrical flow.
MOBILE SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT
2-37. Like FM, mobile subscriber equipment (MSE) requires a line-of-sight transmission path and a tactical satellite or several relay sites to overcome mountainous terrain and maintain MSE connectivity (FM 6-02.55 contains in-depth information concerning the deployment and employment of MSE).
WIRE AND FIELD PHONES
2-38. Wire is normally one of the most reliable means of communication. Un-fortunately, in rugged mountains and particularly during the winter months, wire is more difficult and time consuming to install, maintain, and protect.
Wire may be dispensed in mountain areas by tracked or wheeled vehicle, foot, skis, snowshoes, or oversnow vehicles. As in any environment, units must periodically patrol their wire lines to ensure that they have remained camouflaged and that the enemy has not tapped into them.
2-39. Snow-covered cables and wire can cause the loss of many man-days in recovering or maintaining circuits. This can be avoided by pulling the cable from under the snow after each snowfall and letting it rest just below the surface of the snow. Trees or poles can be used to support wire. Allowances must be made for drifting snow when determining the height above ground at which to support the lines. However, when crossing roads, it is preferable to run the wire through culverts and under bridges rather than bury or raise wire overhead. In addition to ease, this technique reduces maintenance requirements associated with vehicles severing lines, particularly with higher volumes of traffic on limited road networks. If long-distance wire communications are required, the integration of radio relay systems must be considered.
2-40. Great care must be taken in handling wire and cables in extreme cold weather. Condensation and ice on connectors make connecting cables difficult and can degrade the signal path. When rubber jackets become hard, the cables must be protected from stretching and bending to prevent short circuits caused by breaks in the covering. Therefore, all tactical cable and wire should be stored in heated areas or warmed prior to installation. TC 24-20 provides more detailed information on the installation and maintenance of wire and cable.
2-41. Field phones are useful in a stationary position, such as a mountain patrol base or an ambush site, although leaders must consider the weight and 2-13
difficulties encountered in laying and maintaining wire in these sites of limited duration. The batteries that are used to operate field telephones and switchboards are subject to the same temperature limitations as those used to power tactical radio sets.
2-42. When used with a hands-free phone, commercially available rope with a communication wire in it is ideally suited for mountain operations. This system is lightweight and easy to manage, and provides an added measure of security during limited visibility operations. In addition to the standard uses, since it functions as both a rope and a wire, it can be used to control movement on all types of installations, and it can serve as a primary means of communication for climbing teams.
AUDIO, VISUAL, AND PHYSICAL SIGNALS
2-43. Leaders can use simple audio signals, such as voice or whistles, to locally alert and warn. Sound travels farther in mountain air. Although this effect may increase the possibility of enemy detection, interrupting terrain, wind conditions, and echoes can restrict voice and whistle commands to certain directions and uses.
2-44. Like audio signals, visual signals such as pyrotechnics and mirrors have limited use due to enemy detection, but may work for routine and emergency traffic at the right time and place. Blowing sand or snow, haze, fog, and other atmospheric conditions may periodically affect range and reliability.
2-45. Units should use hand and arm signals instead of the radio or voice whenever possible, especially when close to the enemy. Luminous tape on the camouflage band, luminous marks on a compass, or flashlights may be used as signals at night over short distances. Infrared sources and receiving equipment, such as night vision goggles, aiming lights, and infrared filters for flashlights, can be used to send and receive signals at night. However, an enemy outfitted with similar equipment can also detect active devices.
2-46. A tug system is a common method of signaling between members of a roped climbing team. However, tug systems are often unreliable when climbers are moving on a rope or when the distance is so great that the friction of the rope on the rock absorbs the signals. Separate tug lines can be installed in static positions by tying a string, cord, or wire from one position to the next.
Soldiers can pass signals quietly and quickly between positions by pulling on the tug line in a prearranged code.
MESSENGER
2-47. Although slow, communication by messenger is frequently the only means available to units operating in the mountains. Messengers should be trained climbers, resourceful, familiar with mountain peculiarities, and able to carry their own existence load. During the winter, advanced skiing skills may also be required. Messengers should always be dispatched in pairs. Air messenger service should be scheduled between units and integrated with the aerial resupply missions. Vehicles may also be employed to maintain messenger communications when conditions of time, terrain, and distance permit.
Chapter 2
SECTION IV – TRAINING
2-48. Because US forces do not routinely train in a mountain environment, they must make extensive preparations to ensure individual and unit effectiveness. Ultimate success in the mountains depends largely on developing cohesive, combat-ready teams consisting of well-trained soldiers. To be successful, commanders must understand the stratification of mountain warfare, recognize the unique aspects of leadership required, and implement training programs that prepare soldiers for the rigors of mountain fighting.
2-49. In the mountains,
•
commanders face the challenge of
Mountaineering skills
•
maintaining their units’ combat
Air assault and air movement
effectiveness and efficiency. To
operations
•
meet this challenge, commanders
Deception
•
conduct training that provides
Stealth and infiltration
•
soldiers with the mountaineering
Limited visibility operations
skills necessary to apply combat
• Patrolling
power in a rugged mountain
• Reconnaissance
environment, and they develop
• Communications
leaders capable of applying
• CS and CSS operations
doctrine to the distinct characteris- Figure 2-6. Training Areas of Emphasis tics of mountain warfare.
2-50. The ability to apply doctrine and tactics in mountainous environments is not as easy to develop as technical proficiency. Training, study, and garri-son experimentation may provide the basis for competence. However, only through experience gained by practical application in the mountains will leaders become skilled in mountain warfare. Proficiency in the areas listed in Figure 2-6 will provide commanders with a degree of flexibility in the application of doctrine to a mountain area of operations.
2-51. The best combat and combat support plans cannot ensure victory unless commanders concentrate on developing a leadership climate that is derived from the human dimension of mountain warfare. The complexities of mountain combat make it extremely important to establish training programs that modify the traditional application of tactics so that units can reach their full potential. Training must simulate the tempo, scope, and uncertainty of mountain combat to create the versatility required to capitalize on the harsh environment as a force multiplier.
2-52. Competent units operate effectively in mountains and focus on the battle. Unprepared units, however, may become distracted by the environment and end up expending as much effort fighting the environment as they do fighting the enemy. Soldiers cannot be fully effective unless they have the proper clothing and equipment, and are trained to protect themselves against the effects of terrain and frequent and sudden changes in weather.
2-15
INITIAL TRAINING ASSESSMENT
2-53. In addition to the questions applicable to every mission, commanders must consider the following when preparing for operations in a mountainous environment:
• What kind of mountains will the unit be operating in?
§ What elevations will the unit be operating at?
§ What are the climatic and terrain conditions of the AO?
§ Are at least two years of accurate weather reports available (see Appendix B)?
• When must the unit be ready to move?
• What training resources are needed and available?
• Are local training areas and ranges available?
§ If not, what alternative arrangements can be made?
§ What available training areas most closely resemble the AO?
• What special equipment does the unit require?
• What training assistance is available?
§ Does the unit have former mountain warfare instructors, military mountaineers, or others with experience in a mountainous
environment?
§ Are instructors available from outside the unit?
• What special maintenance is required for weapons and equipment?
• What is the level of physical fitness?
• What additional combat, combat support, and combat service support units are necessary to accomplish the operational missions?
§ Can specific units be identified for possible coordinated training?
• Will allied and multinational troops participate?
2-54. As commanders get answers to these and other questions, they must develop training programs to bring their units to a level where they will be fully capable of operating successfully in mountainous conditions. To do this, they must establish priorities for training. The training requirements listed in Figure 2-7 are only a guide. Commanders should add, delete, and modify the tasks as necessary, depending on the specific AO, the state of readiness of their units when they begin preparations for mountain operations, and the time and facilities available (see FM 7-10).
PHYSICAL CONDITIONING
2-55. Soldiers who have lived and trained mostly at lower elevations tend to develop a sense of insecurity and fear about higher elevations – many are simply afraid of heights in general. With this in mind, leaders must plan training that accustoms soldiers to the effects of the mountain environment.
Physical conditioning must be strictly enforced, since “new muscle” strain associated with balance and prolonged ascents/descents quickly exhausts even the most physically fit soldiers. Even breathing becomes strenuous, given the Chapter 2
TEAMS AND
TRAINING
STAFF AND
ALL
CREW
SPECIALISTS
REQUIREMENTS
LEADERS
MEMEBERS
Physical Conditioning and
✔
✔
✔
✔
Acclimatization
Mountain Illnesses and Injuries
✔
✔
✔
✔
Mountain Living and Survival
✔
✔
✔
✔
Mountain Navigation Techniques
✔
✔
✔