Many gods flourished in ancient Egypt, with different communities adopting their own particular champion. Egyptian gods commonly had bodies of animal form that represented prized natural traits, like the flight of a falcon, the power of a ram, the potency of a cobra, even the practical work ethic of a scarab, or dung beetle.
Those Egyptian gods merged into a growing pantheon as their communities coalesced into larger and larger kingdoms, until all of Egypt was united. Some gods were combined, as when Amon and Ra were joined to form Amon-Ra, and other gods were assigned to different duties such as Set, the chief deity of Upper Egypt, assuming the position of god of the night, being inferior to Horus the sun god who was the primary deity of the conquering king of Lower Egypt. Horus the falcon was only one of the sun gods over the years, others included Ra with human form, Kheprer the winged beetle as the rising sun and many others.
In explaining life's trials and tribulations, Egyptian religious lore took on soap opera style intrigue. In lust of power, brothers turned on each other and children sought vengeance. That was the case with brothers Set and Osiris. Osiris had married Isis, his sister by tradition. And having come to envy Osiris, Set plotted to destroy him; luring Osiris into an ambush and murdering him. Osiris was placed in a coffin and put adrift in the Nile whence he was washed to sea. Some time after the grieving Isis recovered the body of her beloved Osiris, Set again found his body and this time dismembered it and scattered the pieces throughout Egypt. When Isis located the parts of Osiris she buried them where they lay, as a farmer might plant his crop. It wasn’t until Osiris’ secret son Horus was grown that Osiris’ death could be avenged. After Horus defeated his uncle Set in an epic battle and delivered Set to his mother, he sought the aid of Thoth, the god of wisdom, and revived his father with the gift of his own eye lost in his battle with Set.
Symbolically, the eye of the sun god Horus had revived the “grains” of Osiris in the soil, just as the sun gives rise to the crops. That’s but one example of the concerns of Egypt that the gods were fashioned to address. Of course, peoples’ primary concern was the extension of life beyond death. For that they invented elaborate rituals to ensure safe passage to the “other side” and prosperity when they arrived. Among the treasures and miniature models of vessels and servants laid away with the deceased, could often be found the Book of the Dead, meant to secure eternal prosperity. The Book of the Dead contains many spells and incantations to acquire blessings of the afterlife and served as a general guide to the deceased for getting the most from their new land.
Myths of encyclopedic complexity evolved to describe the perils of reaching the last land; gaining the ferryman’s assistance, negotiating wilderness, getting beyond hostile animals and unlocking secret passages. Of course the religion continued to evolve, and the characteristics and location of paradise itself changed with the times. As mankind’s range and travels increased, the gods and heaven retreated farther and farther into the unknown. For Egyptians, paradise could variously be found at the end of the world near the mountains in the west where the setting sun met the stars of the underworld, across the great sea, or even in the Nile of the sky, the Milky Way. Once there, the rich were assured a life of plenty and leisure in a fertile land covered with great crops worked by their slaves.
In order to achieve such lasting bliss, the deceased had to show his worth by announcing to judges that he had done no evil. He would profess not to have: done those things the god abominates, allowed one to hunger, caused one to weep, murdered, caused a man misery, taken food or offerings from the temple, committed adultery, stolen, dammed running water, or committed similar evils. Should the man’s heart be proven lighter than an ostrich feather on the scales of jackal-headed Anubis, he would gain entry into the blessed fields of Osiris. But should the man’s heart be shown to outweigh the ostrich feather, his soul might be cast into a fiery hell or be eaten by the Devouress, a combination creature with the jaws of a crocodile on the forequarters of a lion and rear of a hippopotamus.
Egypt’s long history allowed plenty of time to consider an after-life. For many hundreds of years after Egypt was united the land was virtually free from foreign invasion. The stability of the government, and the regularity of Nile flooding that provided fertility and water to the land to supply a steady food source, allowed the Egyptians to concentrate on great building projects such as grand temples, palaces, and the Pyramids. Religion in ancient Egypt lived long, prospered, and subsequently addressed many subjects. It showed especially high reverence for the lords of the land, the pharaohs, and the life-giving sun and Nile River.
But what was lacking relative to many ancient religions was an obsession with warfare and conquest. As heads of state and religion, pharaohs were interested in prosperity and stability. They weren’t interested in stirring the citizens with stories of oppression and apocalyptic prophecies of cataclysmic wars marking the end of the world and establishment of a new order. Frustration and discord was contrary to the interests of not only the pharaohs and ruling families, but also to those of the influential priestly class.
Egypt’s most immediate contemporary, Mesopotamia, had a similar history of religious development wherein the gods of tribes and small communities were brought together as cities grew and states merged. And, like Egypt, the result was an exceptional variety of myths; with the Gilgamesh flood epic being one of a long line that reflected Mesopotamians’ concern over the unpredictability of river flooding. After being warned by the god Ea of a catastrophic flood that the gods were going to unleash on the people, Utnapishtim built an ark 140 cubits tall, with sides 120 cubits high to hold the future of life on Earth. The story is picked up with the end of the rain below:
When the seventh day drew nigh, the tempest ceased; the deluge,
Which had fought like an army, ended.
Then rested the sea, the storm fell asleep, the flood ceased.
I looked upon the sea, while I sent forth my wail.
All mankind was turned to clay.
Like a swamp the field lay before me.
I opened the window and the light fell upon my face,
I bowed, I sat down, I wept,
And over my face ran my tears.
I looked upon the world, all was sea.
After twelve days (?) the land emerged.
To the land of Nisir the ship made its way,
The mount of Nisir held it fast, that it moved not …
I sent forth a dove and let her go.
The dove flew to and fro,
But there was no resting place and she returned.
I sent forth a swallow and let her go,
The swallow flew to and fro,
But there was no resting place and she returned.
I sent forth a raven and let her go,
The raven flew away, she saw the abatement of the waters,
She drew near, she waded, she croaked, and came not back.
Then I sent everything forth to the four quarters of heaven, I offered sacrifice,
I made a libation upon the mountain’s peak.
The general trend of religion was from spirits in animal form in rural societies to more humanized gods as civilizations developed and people moved into urban areas. In most areas writing lagged so far behind religious development that the earliest deities had been largely humanized by the time their customs were recorded. By the time of the early Greek poet Homer (circa 8th century B.C.), the gods of the Greek pantheon were a fully humanized amalgamation of gods from early societies like the Minoans and Pelasgians, with those of Indo-European migrants from the north, of which the Dorians were among the last. Among others, the Indo-Europeans brought with them their chief god, Zeus, who was also known as Dyaus Pitar by other Indo-Europeans and Jupiter when they introduced him to the Romans. Zeus also became king of all the Greek gods and married the local goddess Hera.
By that time the Greek gods were becoming highly idealized with super-human beauty to go along with their super powers and generalized job functions. They had also been largely gathered together at Mount Olympus from amid the Hellenic people. Though the Greek Pantheon was much larger, Zeus and Hera were commonly joined on Mount Olympus by Zeus' brother Poseidon, master of the seas; their Titan parents, Cronus and Rhea; Zeus and Hera's children, Hephaestus, god of forge and fire, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, the archer Apollo who had the power to hurt or heal, their nature daughter Artemis, and the warrior Ares; Zeus’ daughter with Dione the goddess of love Aphrodite, the mystical Dionysus, son of Zeus and mortal Semele, and Hermes, the messenger, son of Zeus and Maia.
Apollo found some fame as the source of wisdom delivered to the famous oracle at Delphi, for centuries consultant to Greeks before momentous decisions. Try as they might however, people could never invent gods that knew any more than they did. To get around that failure of religion the Greek oracles, or fortune tellers, uttered nonsensical ramblings, or spoke in tongues as the Jews and Christians would say, that required interpretation. To this day failed interpretation is the crutch upon which religions stand in the face of their own obvious withering lack of knowledge.
But even the wisdom of Apollo and the strength of Zeus couldn’t stand firm in the face of Greek enlightenment, or perhaps more accurately, a little common sense. As the gods lost their air of mystery by being domesticated; they were subjected to limited roles and their capabilities more precisely defined. Indicative of the gods decline was the slight by Diagoras of Melos when he was said to have thrown a wooden image of a god into a fire in the 5th century BC, and remarked that the deity should perform another miracle by saving itself. But still, Diagoras was in the minority and was forced to flee Athens with a bounty on his head. A contemporary of Diagoras, Greek philosopher Anaxagoras was also persecuted for opposing the absurd fantasies of religion.
Imaginative exercises of recitation and literature were instrumental in transforming feared gods into interesting and even entertaining characters. Playwrights were instrumental in exposing fantasy as such by producing adventures of god heroes such as Achilles, Dionysus, Zeus and Hercules. Theater helped bring the gods out of the sacred temples and into popular public imagination. The fantasy of religion was running its natural course; losing appeal in the light of creative license, free discussion, and philosophy that was growing more concerned with factual representation. As Greek civilization set new standards in thought and practice, religion held on, but its power declined as more people rose above the fantasy.
Religion in Rome, though different, ran a similar course. Even while Roman military power dominated the Mediterranean, people of the region remained Hellenized. Well before Rome flexed its military muscle, early Roman religion had a strong resemblance to magic. The many spirits that were honored in a multitude of ceremonies and festivals were bound to perform as directed by very particular ritual, similar to the Brahmin influence in Hinduism. But, the practical attitude of Romans clearly showed in their religion. Ceremony was approached as a demanding contract between god and person. If the ceremony didn’t result in the desired outcome it was either because the ritual was not performed with meticulous exactness by the supplicant, or the god failed in its duty. In the latter case, people often found another god to worship.
Other influences, particularly Greek gods and traditions made their way into Roman religion as the Empire expanded. Much godly immigration was the result of the Sibylline Books, a collection of Greek oracles, or divine advice, that came to be consulted by priests at the influential Capitoline temple for important decisions. Of course, since the books were of Greek origin and the advice therein referenced many Greek gods, corresponding Greek temples were constructed in Roman territory.
In the latter stages of empire, Roman religion was largely shallow formality and even the city of Rome and Roman Emperors were deified. The symbolic religion, though still ritually practiced, was largely pushed aside by real-world practicality. Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger concluded in the 1st century that: “Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and by rulers as useful.”
Regardless of the state of Roman religion, the enduring influence of the Empire would help shape the future of western religion. One institution dating from pre-republic Rome that would later influence the formation of the Catholic Church was the College of Pontiffs of which the Pontifex Maximus was the chief priest. Later, Roman emperors held the title of Pontifex Maximus, until Emperor Gratian bestowed the title on Siricius, the bishop of Rome, in the year 382. Thus, the head of the official state religion which became the Catholic Church continues to be based in Rome. Modern popes are titled by the variant Pontifex Summus and elected by the similarly named College of Cardinals.
In the evolution of religion, old religions often give way to newer traditions, similar to the manner in which Christianity replaced the Roman pantheon. More religions have died out than could be named today. As older religions faded away the religion of the Indus River Valley of Northwest India, Hinduism, was left as possibly the oldest distinct religion still widely practiced today. Its archeological record, while pre-dating known Jewish works, doesn’t rival extinct ancient Egyptian and Sumerian finds. But belief in Karma; which may be generally taken to mean one’s experiences in this or future lives is the just result of one’s previous action or behavior; and belief in reincarnation, may date to more than two millennia B.C.
While Indian writing lagged behind that of the Fertile Crescent, the oldest known texts that form the written foundation for Hinduism still date from more than one millennium B.C. Those Vedas included mantras that were chanted over and over to instill focus on a particular subject, along with other writing styles that covered topics such as philosophy and performance of rituals and sacrifices.
The vast collections of texts may not have been considered divinely inspired by their authors or those that compiled them, but much like the Bible, through time they became regarded as such. The eclectic nature of the Vedic collections reflects an openness of Hinduism. That lack of rigid control and limits allowed Hinduism to exceed other current religions in variety. Without progressive suppression of independent thought, characteristic of the Abrahamic religions, Hindus added their interpretations and perspectives to the embracing faith.
Gods and spirits are plentiful in the Hindu world, with Indra early being chief among them. Other popular gods include Brahma the Creator, Shiva the Destroyer, and Vishnu the Preserver. Vishnu has even appeared in nine earthly incarnations, known as avatars, which have come to be regarded as gods in their own rights. Some of the well known avatars include Rama, the righteous; Krishna, the adorable; Ganesha, the elephant headed; Hanuman, the monkey god; and Yama, the god of the dead. Kalkin, the tenth avatar of Vishnu, is supposed to usher forth the end of the world.
As a tolerant religion, Hinduism absorbed local customs as it spread and also evolved separately in remote areas, growing immensely complex. Hindus may worship one god or a hundred, or even no god, but a unifying essence that provides consciousness to matter. Self interest presented itself in Hinduism as the rising power of priests known as Brahmins. Similar to the Romans it came to be held by many Hindus that the gods were controlled by rituals, and as leaders and experts of rituals, the Brahmins were in control. In addition, the old brutality and injustice of animal sacrifice, and the restrictive nature of the maturing class system supported by Hinduism, led some of the more advanced Indian people to reject it.
An Indian religion offering greater equality and compassion was Jainism. Jains don’t believe in a god, but rather the spirit in all life. The 6th century BC Indian prince, Nataputta Vardhamana came to be regarded as Mahavira, or hero. He’s the man that denounced material goods and other desires, and walked around India naked preaching the way of peace and nirvana. With selfless objectivity he promoted the equality of males and females. Yet, by far his greatest attribute and contribution to the world was promotion of the practice of ahimsa, or non-injury to any living creature.
Mahavira placed great effort toward preventing harm to sentient beings by actively encouraging people to not only stop willfully killing and hurting their fellow earthlings but also to take great care not to hurt others by accident. He personally carried a whisk broom to clear his path of insects that might otherwise be injured by his passing, or presence. Jainism doesn’t offer a creation myth or stories of a world ending war, and there’s no jealous god demanding war on unbelievers. Nor did Jainism gain a huge following based on conquest and subjugation of native people, or even become the state religion of a powerful warring nation.
While all religions may be in error, they’re far from equally erroneous or harmful. A large inherent family circle and loving disposition allows some to stand as wise giants among petty children. The kindness of Mahavira’s Jainism, and its inspiration to grow beyond the self elevates it among the greatest of modern religions.
But Mahavira wasn’t the only Indian prince to lead a religious movement in the 6th century BC. The prince from the area of modern Nepal named Siddhartha Gautama, is widely known today as the Buddha, or enlightened one. Like Mahavira, he chose an ascetic lifestyle, shunning pleasure. But then Buddha realized that a life of moderation was more sensible, and morally productive, than purposefully denying oneself pleasure. Gautama Buddha’s style was more akin to a philosopher of contemporary Greece than the fire-brand prophets commonly associated with modern Western religions. He offered his vision of reaching enlightenment to those who cared to hear it. His was not a campaign to recruit the world or compete with the jealous gods for subjects. He offered simple Precepts to live a better life that were similar to what Mahavira had espoused the previous generation. Those Precepts included:
1. To refrain from taking life.
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given.
3. To refrain from sensual misconduct.
4. To refrain from lying. And,
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.
Hindu authors retaliated against Buddha by naming him the ninth avatar of Vishnu; claiming that he was leading the evil toward their punishment. But, having considerable freedom to choose their own priorities, Hindu worshippers incorporated some of the teachings of Mahavira and Buddha into their own doctrine, with some Hindus adopting a policy of moderation and detachment in the way of The Buddha.
And many Hindus were also so impressed by Mahavira’s example of compassion that ahimsa and vegetarianism became widespread in Hinduism. Fortunately for eastern civilization, Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are open and welcoming, with adherents freely partaking of each. One latter day popular historical figure strongly influenced by Jainism and Hinduism is Mahatma Gandhi, the man called the Father of India for his peaceful approach to securing independence for India from British colonial rule, and before that, seeking racial equality in South Africa.
The 6th century BC was quite notable for developments in Indian philosophy, but there was yet another celebrated teacher from the 6th century BC named Confucius. Confucius was a government administrator in China who’s revered as the founder of a major religion, but he may be more accurately described as a philosopher, or even an organizer and motivator. By his own admission, he didn’t develop a great deal of doctrine or philosophy. In fact, the simple premise of being a proper gentleman was at the heart of Confucian philosophy. He lived in a land of ancestor veneration, and reasoned that people should live by li as the ancestors had. Li is synonymous with good manners, proper behavior and courtesy. According to Confucius, if li, the cosmic harmony, could be achieved between men, Earth and heaven, Tao, the will of heaven, would be in place.
Confucius was a practical person, with order in society being one of his top priorities. His professional career involved advising feudal governors, and he willingly embraced the feudal system. Proper respect with regard to one’s place in society dictated his teaching. His Five Great Relationships were: kindness in the father, filial piety in the son; gentility in the eldest brother, humility and respect in the younger; righteous behavior in the husband, obedience in the wife; humane consideration in elders, deference in juniors; and benevolence in rulers, loyalty in ministers and subjects.
When asked what of repaying evil with kindness? Confucius replied, “Then what are you going to repay kindness with? … Repay kindness with kindness, but repay evil with justice.” But unlike many modern advocates and politicians he didn’t believe a well-ordered state could be legislated into existence. Instead, he was a proponent of the Golden Rule, “What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others,” he said.
While Confucius helped shape Chinese culture for thousands of years to come, a man named Zoroaster was instrumental in forming thought in the west. Zoroaster lived in an area, some believe modern Iran, influenced by the same ancient Aryans that provided much of the basis for early Hinduism. And though he is not well-known today, his teachings, as set forth in the Zoroastrian religion, are familiar to many followers of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Western religion today is dominated by one god opposed by one evil rival. But before Zoroaster’s time, popular religion was dominated by multiple gods engaged in complex relationships. Tradition holds that he had been tempted by the evil spirit to renounce the supreme god. But Zoroaster triumphed over that temptation, just as the supreme god, Ahura Mazda with his accompanying angels would eventually triumph over his brother Angra Manyu and his forces of evil to establish paradise where the righteous people, living and dead, would be reunited.
It wasn’t the triumph of Ahura Mazda over Angra Manyu that spread Zoroastrianism. Rather, the conquest of the Fertile Crescent by Cyrus the Great, King of the Persian Empire, centered in what is now Iran, would help spread the concept of one god, ultimate in presence and power, opposed by one great essence of evil.