Air interdiction and mobile air interdiction.
z
Manned and unmanned reconnaissance.
z
Joint suppression of enemy air defenses.
z
Electronic warfare.
z
Airlift requirements.
E-16. The BCD does not participate directly in the ARFOR commander’s estimate or decisionmaking process. The BCD supplies information regarding all the warfighting functions to ARFOR staff during the process. The ARFOR commander may delegate decisionmaking authority for specific events or situations to the BCD commander. This authority speeds action on various functions supporting the commander’s plan and must be clearly defined by the ARFOR commander. The BCD eases planning, coordination, and execution of—
z
Battle command.
z
Intelligence.
z
Firepower.
z
Airspace management.
z
Air and missile defense.
z
Theater missile defense (when the Army air and missile defense command is not at the joint air operations center).
z
Army information tasks.
z
Airlift support.
JOINT TERMINAL ATTACK CONTROLLER
E-17. The JTAC is the forward Army ground commander’s CAS expert. JTACs provide the ground commander recommendations on the use of CAS and its integration with ground maneuver. They are members of TACPs and perform terminal attack control of individual CAS missions. In addition to being current and qualified to control CAS, the JTAC must—
z
Know the enemy situation, selected targets, and location of friendly units, and support the unit’s plans, position, and needs.
z
Validate targets of opportunity.
z
Advise the commander on proper use of air assets.
z
Submit immediate requests for CAS.
z
Control CAS with supported commander’s approval.
z
Perform battle damage assessment.
JOINT FIRES OBSERVER
E-18. A joint fires observer can request, adjust, and control surface-to-surface fires; provide targeting information in support of Type 2 and Type 3 CAS terminal attack controls; and perform autonomous terminal guidance operations. A Type 2 observer can see either target or attacking aircraft whereas a Type 3 observer can see neither target nor attacking aircraft. JTACs cannot be in a position to see every target on the battlefield. Trained joint fires observers work with JTACs to assist maneuver commanders with the timely planning, synchronization, and responsive execution of all joint fires. Autonomous terminal guidance operations independent of CAS require the joint fires observer to communicate directly or indirectly with the individual commanding the delivery system. The observer also requires command and control connectivity with the maneuver commander or appropriate weapons release authority. Although any military member could be required to perform CAS with unqualified controller procedures, joint fires observers are better trained and prepared to execute CAS in the absence of a JTAC. A joint fires observer E-4
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Air Force Interface in Corps Operations
adds joint warfighting capability, without circumventing the need for qualified JTACs. Joint fires observers provide the capability to exploit those opportunities that exist in the corps AO. Such trained observers can efficiently support air delivered surface-to-surface fires and facilitate targeting for the JTAC in situations that are joint CAS.
AIR LIAISON OFFICER
E-19. The air liaison officer is the senior TACP member attached to a corps headquarters or subordinate ground unit who functions as the primary advisor to the ground commander on air operations. Above the battalion level, an air liaison officer is an expert in the capabilities and limitations of air power. The air liaison officer plans and executes CAS in accordance with the ground commander’s intent and guidance.
The air liaison officer coordinates external requests for electronic warfare support with the corps electronic warfare officer in support of corps operations. The senior air liaison officer exercises OPCON of all Air Force personnel assigned to the unit.
AIR MOBILITY LIAISON OFFICER
E-20. Air mobility liaison officers are rated Air Force officers specially trained to advise Army and Marine units on the optimum, safe use of air mobility assets. They normally support Army units at the corps, division, BCTs, and selected brigade echelons, but may support echelons above corps.
STAFF WEATHER OFFICER
E-21. The staff weather officer supports air and ground Army units with weather and weather impact information that is vital to the military decisionmaking process, including intelligence preparation of the battlefield, coordination with higher and adjacent weather teams, and support to flight mission planning.
The staff weather officer performs these and other tasks within the corps assistant chief of staff, intelligence (G-2) section under the ISR operations element.
AIR FUNCTIONS IN SUPPORT OF CORPS OPERATIONS
E-22. The commander, Air Force forces supports the JFC, the JFLCC, and the corps headquarters—
including its assigned, attached, OPCON, TACON, and supporting units. This support includes counterair, counterland, terminal attack control, airlift, surveillance and reconnaissance, and weather services. In addition, the commander, Air Force forces is normally dual-hatted as the JFACC and serves as the airspace control authority and the area air defense commander.
COUNTERAIR
E-23. Counterair operations aim to gain control of the air environment to achieve air supremacy.
Counterair operations protect friendly forces, ensure freedom to perform other missions, and deny that freedom to the enemy. Forces conduct these operations at a distance or so to render unnecessary detailed integrating with fires and the movement of friendly ground forces. Counterair operations are consistent with the JFC’s objectives and may initially involve the highest priority of all air operations. These operations involve offensive and defensive counterair operations, including the suppression of enemy air defenses. The JFACC determines the ratio of forces assigned among these counterair operations, based on—
z
JFC guidance.
z
Level of enemy air threat.
z
Vulnerability of friendly forces to air attack.
z
Enemy air defense capability.
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Appendix E
E-24. Offensive counterair operations are essential to gaining air superiority and should be conducted at the start of hostilities to seize the offense. They are typified by attacks against—
z
Command and control facilities.
z
Munitions and missile storage sites.
z
Aircraft on the ground or in the air.
z
Any target that contributes to the enemy’s airpower capability.
E-25. Suppression of enemy air defense operations are a form of offensive counterair operations designed to neutralize, destroy, or temporarily degrade enemy air defense systems and thus detract from the enemy’s airpower capabilities. These operations allow friendly aviation forces to accomplish other missions effectively without interference from enemy air defense. The corps’ attached, OPCON, and TACON
surface-to-surface weapons complement the efforts of joint systems. The JFACC conducts suppression of enemy air defense operations against surface-to-air defensive systems. Battalion and larger ground units plan and conduct these operations in localized areas to protect fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. The units use available field artillery cannon and rocket systems, attack helicopters, direct fire weapons, offensive information engagement, and command and control warfare.
E-26. Defensive counterair operations detect, identify, intercept, and destroy enemy airpower attempting to attack friendly forces or penetrate friendly airspace. Initially, they may be the priority mission if the enemy has seized the initiative through surprise or friendly political constraints. Defensive counter air operations involve active measures such as using combat fighter aircraft and air defense artillery. They also involve passive measures, not involving weapons systems, such as—
z
Radar coverage for early warning.
z
Protective construction (for example, hardened sites).
z
Cover, camouflage, deception, dispersion, and frequent movement of personnel and equipment.
See JP 3-01 for additional information on countering air and missile threats.
COUNTERLAND
E-27. Counterland is air and space operations against enemy land force capabilities to create effects that achieve JFC objectives. These operations dominate the surface environment and prevent the opponent from doing the same. Although historically associated with support to friendly land forces, counterland operations may encompass missions either without the presence of friendly land forces or with only a few land forces providing target cueing. This independent or direct attack of adversary surface operations by air and space forces is the key to success when seizing the initiative during early phases of a campaign.
Counterland provides two discrete air operations for engaging enemy land forces: air interdiction and CAS.
Air interdiction uses air maneuver to indirectly support land maneuver or directly support an air scheme of maneuver. CAS uses air maneuver to directly support land maneuver.
E-28. Interdiction operations are joint actions to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy’s military potential before it can be used effectively against friendly forces, or otherwise meet JFC objectives. It may—
z
Reduce the enemy’s capability to mount an offensive.
z
Restrict the enemy’s freedom of action and increase vulnerability to friendly attack.
z
Prevent the enemy from countering an increase in friendly strength.
z
Decrease the enemy’s reserves.
Air Interdiction
E-29. Normally the JFACC executes air interdiction as part of a systematic and persistent operation in support of the JFC’s intent. Air interdiction includes actions against land targets positioned to have a near-term effect on the corps’ operations but still not in proximity to the corps maneuver and support forces. The corps headquarters nominates these air interdiction targets. The theater army and JFLCC prioritize corps-nominated air interdiction targets. The theater army and JFLCC priorities are submitted to the JFACC
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Air Force Interface in Corps Operations
along with those of other functional or Army Service components in theater and the JFC’s objectives. Air interdiction requires joint coordination during planning.
E-30. Air interdiction occurs at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required. When air interdiction occurs inside the fire support coordination line, the ASOC is the principal command and control node for direction and controls the missions, ensuring the necessary coordination with ground operations.
E-31. Conducting accurate and effective attacks on targets far beyond the corps’ maneuver forces helps to establish the conditions necessary for the conduct of the division’s decisive operation. The JFLCC may provide a portion of the sorties allocated to air interdiction to the division commander. Normally, however, the division commander may only nominate targets for the air commander to attack.
E-32. The JFACC oversees executing air interdiction operations. Air interdiction in support of the Army commander disrupts the continuity of the enemy’s operations. Objectives may include—
z
Reducing the enemy’s capability to employ follow-on forces.
z
Preventing the enemy from countering friendly maneuver.
z
Hindering the enemy’s ability to resupply its committed forces.
E-33. In truly joint interdependent operations, the corps commander may be the supporting commander during air interdiction operations by using friendly fire and maneuver forces to cause the enemy to mass or break cover, thus increasing the enemy’s vulnerability to air attack. Although forces can nominate air interdiction targets by specific unit, time, and place of attack, describing the desired results or objectives to the air commander often proves more effective. This use of mission-type targets allows the air commander greater flexibility in planning and executing the attack. However, commanders can recommend or request specific munitions against a target that is particularly vulnerable to the munitions requested.
E-34. The corps’ air interdiction targeting process does not stop with nomination of the targets or mission-type requests. Target intelligence continues from when the target nomination is made to when the unit detects and tracks the target to when the unit finally attacks the target. The corps main CP allocates intelligence and surveillance assets to support the combat assessment of targets attacked by both CAS and air interdiction. The corps headquarters and Air Force share close and continuous intelligence, particularly for targets that have limited dwell time or cannot be accurately located until just prior to attack. (See JP 3-03 for additional information on joint interdiction operations.)
Close Air Support
E-35. Close air support is an attack against hostile surface forces in proximity to friendly forces and requires detailed integration into the supported commander’s scheme of fires and maneuver. To be successful, CAS responds to the ground commander’s needs. CAS targets are selected by the ground commander. Elements of the theater airspace control system plan, direct, and control CAS. CAS enhances ground force operations by providing the capability to deliver many weapons and massed firepower at decisive points. CAS is conducted to—
z
Blunt an enemy attack on a friendly position.
z
Help obtain and maintain the ground offensive.
z
Provide cover for friendly movements.
E-36. Normally the JFLCC distributes CAS to subordinate Army commanders who then redistribute their CAS distribution to their subordinate commanders. By retaining control over most of the CAS sorties, the corps and its subordinate commands can shift priorities, weight its effort, and rapidly respond to emerging opportunities without shifting CAS sorties from one BCT to another. Combining CAS with attack helicopters and artillery produces a highly effective joint air attack team.
TERMINAL ATTACK CONTROL
E-37. Recent technological advances in aircraft capabilities, weapons systems, and munitions have provided joint terminal attack controllers with additional tools to maximize effects of fires while mitigating risk of fratricide when employing air power near friendly forces. During CAS, some technologies can be 26 November 2010
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Appendix E
exploited: aircraft and munitions equipped with a global positioning system, laser range finders and designators, and digital system capabilities. Terminal attack control procedures exploit advances in technology.
E-38. Three types of terminal attack control exist. Each type follows a set of procedures with an associated risk. Commanders consider the situation and issue guidance to the joint terminal attack controller based on recommendations from their staff and associated risks identified in the tactical risk assessment. The aim is to offer the lowest-level supported commander, within the restraints established during risk assessment, the latitude to determine which type of terminal attack control best accomplishes the mission. Specific levels of risk should not be associated with a given type of terminal attack control (for example, digital targeting systems used in Type 2 control may be a better mitigation of risk than using Type 1). The three types of control are not ordnance specific.
AIRLIFT
E-39. Airlift is the transportation of personnel and materiel through the air, which can be applied across the spectrum of conflict to achieve or support objectives. Airlift can achieve tactical and strategic effects. It provides rapid and flexible mobility options that allow civilian and military forces as well as government agencies to respond to and operate in a wider variety of circumstances and timeframes. It provides U.S.
forces with the global reach to apply strategic global power quickly to crisis situations by delivering necessary forces. The power projection capability for airlift supplies is vital since it provides the flexibility to get rapid-reaction forces to the point of a crisis with minimum delay. Airlift can serve as a United States presence worldwide, demonstrating the Nation’s resolve and serving as a constructive force during times of humanitarian crisis or natural disaster.
E-40. Corps requests for intertheater (between different theaters) airlift are handled by the Air Force air mobility liaison officer supporting the corps through United States Transportation Command. Corps requests for intratheater (within a theater) airlift support are handled through Army logistic channels, with variations for the immediacy of the request. See JP 3-17 and Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 2-6 for additional information concerning air mobility.
SURVEILLANCE AND RECONNAISSANCE
E-41. Surveillance is the function of systematically observing air, space, surface, or subsurface areas, places, persons, or things by visual, aural, electronic, photographic, or other means. Surveillance is a continuing process not oriented to a specific target. In response to the requirements of military forces, surveillance must be designed to provide warning of enemy initiatives and threats and to detect changes in enemy activities.
E-42. Air- and space-based surveillance assets exploit elevation to detect enemy initiatives at long range.
For example, its extreme elevation makes space-based, missile-launch detection and tracking indispensable for defense against ballistic missile attack. Surveillance assets are now essential to national and theater defense and to the security of air, space, subsurface, and surface forces.
E-43. Reconnaissance complements surveillance by obtaining specific information about activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy through visual observation or other detection methods.
Reconnaissance also complements surveillance by securing data concerning the meteorological, hydrographic, or geographic characteristics of a particular area. This can be an important part of the corps targeting process. Locations and activities targeted for surveillance and reconnaissance also reveal important civil considerations during operations focused on the conduct of stability operations.
Reconnaissance generally has a time constraint associated with the tasking. The corps main CP normally handles preplanned requests for aerial reconnaissance; the appropriate TACP handles immediate requests.
See AFDD 2-9 for additional information on this air operational function.
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E-44. Combining the effects of ISR, strike, and ground assets provides a synergistic effect and maximizes the use of limited assets ensuring joint force success. Integrating air and space assets to supply multiple effects toward accomplishing operations objectives requires coordination among the corps main CP
functional, integrating, and coordinating cells and staffs.
WEATHER SERVICES
E-45. Weather services conducted by the Air Force provide timely and accurate environmental information, including both space environment and atmospheric weather, to Army and joint commanders. Weather services gathers, analyzes, and provides meteorological data for mission planning and execution.
Environmental information is integral to the decision process and timing for employing forces and conducting air, ground, and space launch operations. Weather services also influences the selection of targets, routes, weapons systems, and delivery tactics, and act as a key element of information superiority.
See JP 3-59 and AFDD 2-9.1 for additional information on weather services.
COMMON AIRSPACE COORDINATING MEASURES
E-46. Often highly concentrated friendly surface, subsurface, and air-launched weapon systems share the airspace without hindering the application of combat power with the JFC’s intent. Normally the JFC
designates an airspace control authority to meet the airspace requirements of subordinate commanders. The airspace control authority assumes responsibility for operating the airspace control system and achieves unity of effort primarily through centralized planning and control. Airspace coordination primarily enhances combat effectiveness of the joint force. Basic principles of airspace coordination include the following:
z
The airspace control system supports JFC objectives and facilitates unity of effort.
z
Close coordination between air traffic control and air defense elements reduces the risk of friendly fires and increases the effectiveness of air defense.
z
Close liaison and coordination among all airspace users inside and outside the operational area promotes timely and accurate information flow to airspace managers.
z
Airspace control procedures provide maximum flexibility by effectively mixing positive and procedural control measures.
z
The procedural control measures are uncomplicated and readily accessible to all forces.
z
The airspace control system in the combat zone has a reliable, jam-resistant, and secure communications network.
z
Air control assets of the airspace control system have built in redundancy for survivability on the battlefield.
z
The structure of the airspace control system responds to developing enemy threats and the unfolding operation.
z
Airspace control functions rely on airspace coordinating measures resources, but these functions are separate and distinct from real-time control of aircraft and the terminal air traffic controller environment.
z
Flexibility and simplicity is emphasized throughout to maximize the effectiveness of forces operating within the system.
z
Airspace control needs to support 24-hour operations in all-weather and environmental conditions.
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Appendix E
E-47. The methods of airspace control range from positive control of all air assets in an airspace control area to procedural control of all such assets, or any effective combination of the two. Airspace control systems need to accommodate these methods based on component, joint, and national capabilities and requirements. Positive control relies on radars; other sensors; identification, friend or foe selective identification features; digital data links; and other elements of the air defense system to positively identify, track, and direct air assets. Procedural control relies on airspace coordinating measures such as—
z
Comprehensive air defense identification procedures and rules of engagement.
z
Low-level transit routes.
z
Minimum-risk routes.
z
Aircraft identification maneuvers.
z
Fire support coordination measures.
z
Coordinating altitudes.
z
Restricted operations zones and restrictive fire areas.
z
Standard use Army aircraft flight routes.
z
High-density airspace control zones.
See JP 3-52, AFDD 2-1.7, and FM 3-52 for additional information concerning airspace coordinating measures.
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Glossary
The glossary lists acronyms and terms with Army or joint definitions, and other
selected terms. Where Army and joint definitions are different, (Army) follows the term. The proponent manual for terms is listed in parentheses after the definition.
SECTION I – ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ABCS
Army Battle Command System
ACM
airspace coordinating measure
ADAM/BAE
air defense airspace management/brigade aviation element
AFDD
Air Force doctrine document
AMD
air and missile defense
AO
area of operations
AR
Army regulation
ARFOR
See ARFOR under terms.
ASOC
air support operations center
AWACS
Airborne Warning and Control System
BCD
battlefield coordination detachment
BCT
brigade combat team
CAS
close air support
CBRN
chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
CBRNE
chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high-yield explosives
CG
commanding general
CJCS Guide
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff guide
CJCSI
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff instruction
CJCSM
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff manual
CJCSN
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff notice
COP
common operational picture
CP
command post
DA
Department of the Army