Chapter 6 – Vishnu, The Highest, His Attributes
Vishnu as the Supreme Topic of all Agamas
The supreme topic which finds elucidation in almost all the works of Sri Madhwacharya is the doctrine of Vishnu as the Highest Principle. Sri Madhwacharya lays the greatest stress on this doctrine of the Highest Principle which is both transcendent and immanent. The demonstration of this doctrine of the Highest Principle and the identification of the same with Vishnu of the Vedic literature finds most prominent place in his various works and a great part of his works is devoted to the demonstration of this doctrine as finding complete support in the Vedas and the associated literature. The masterly manner in which he demonstrates such an identification is craftsmanship of the highest order. The world consisting of animate (chetana) and inanimate (achetana) beings is demonstrated to be real and the difference between them is also real. The individual soul and inert matter are shown to be dependent and the existence of God as an Independent Being and the controller of the world is inferred. In the Tatvodyota the Acharya refers to God as ‘nityatadrushachicchetyayanta' - the eternal controller of the animate and inanimate world which is unlike Him (i.e., limited in powers and capacities and dependent). In doing so he suggests the inference for proving the existence of God. The fact that the world is composed of animate and inanimate beings which are dependent argues in favour of an Independent Being who controls them. It is the privilege of animate beings to handle inanimate matters as they like and exercise control over it. But animate beings, however, are not independent themselves. I cannot attain full happiness in spite of my best attempts. I feel thwarted at all steps. As the poet says, ‘there is a divinity that shapes our ends/ rough hew it how we will'. Two independent entities may sometimes be able to achieve the end by mutual co-operation so that what is wanting in one may be supplied by the other. To mention the common illustration, a blind man and a lame man cannot walk freely independently. But if the blind man carries the lame man, the latter can direct the former to avoid pitfalls and do the walking. But it is necessary for the blind man and the lame man to get close together. This is, however, not possible because the lame man cannot go up to the blind man and the blind man cannot see his way to reach up to the lame man. To bring these dependent men near one another an agency is required. Such an agency which can bring the dependent beings or entities close together and guide them is God. Now. such an independent Being according to Sri Madhwacharya, is Vishnu, spoken of in all the scared literature. The hallmark of the Highest Principle is independence and the being who is declared to be so is truly the highest. The primary and sole purpose of all the sacred literature, says the Acharya, is the declaration of Vishnu as the Highest Principle (vishnoh sarvottamatvameva mahatatparyam sarvagamanam (V.T.V.p.5)). The Naradiya Purana says the Vedas, Ithiasas and Puranas remind us of Vishnu the supreme who is All knowledge and All Creator (sarvajnam sarvakartaram narayanamanamayam sarvottamam jnapayanti mahatatparyamatra hi (V.T.V.p.3)). The Paingi Shruti says that the great purpose of all sacred literature is the declaration of Vishnu as the Highest Being (sarvotkarse devadevasya visnormahatatparyam sarvagamanam (V.T.V.p.53)). There are a host of similar passages in the Vedic literature declaring that the primary purpose of all sacred literature is the extolment of the excellences of Vishnu. Sri Madhwacharya is never tired of demonstrating the truth of this doctrine, forming as it does the solid bedrock of his philosophy.
The characteristics of the highest principle
Now, a monotheistic doctrine is one in which all the phenomena of the world are traced to the activity of a single supreme principle which motivates all the activities of the world. Such a monotheistic doctrine may not be apparent to the superficial student of the Vedas and allied literature although it is not difficult to recognize monotheistic tendencies in them. In fact, in different places in the Vedic literature different beings or forces are extolled as the Highest Principle. Sri Madhwacharya, however, demonstrates that a complete unified monotheistic doctrine is inculcated in the Vedic literature. A cursory glance at this method may prove of interest to the reader. The Highest Being must have certain characteristics. It must pre-exist all other beings i.e., it must exist all by itself prior to creation. The Highest Being must be the First cause of creation and it must also be the support of the whole universe. These characteristics are attributed to different beings in different parts of the Vedas. The Being who existed before the dawn of creation is said to be Hiranyagarbha (hiranyagarbha samavartatagre (Rk. Samh. 10-121-1) in one place. Rudra is said to exist prior to creation and no one else, in another place (eko rudro na dvitiyovatasthe). The Shruti vasudevo va idamagra asit declares Vasudeva as that being that existed prior to creation. In a like manner the creatorship of the world is attributed to different beings in the different Vedic passages. The world is said to be created by Suparna in one place (ekah supamah sasamudramavivesha sa idam vishwam bhuvanam vichaste (Rk. Samh.) 10-114- 4), by Prakriti (pradhinadidamutpannam (Pradhana Prakriti)) in another place, by Nescience in a third place (asatah sadajayata (Rk. Samh. 10-72-2)). In one Shruti the world is said to have been created by a mere fiat of accident (akasmaddhidamavirasit). The sustainer or support of the world is Rudra or Vayu or Vishnu according to different Shrutis. Thus, the characteristics of the Highest Being are attributed to different beings in the Vedic literature. Indra is called the Highest in one Shruti (sarvasmadindrauttarah) while Vishnu is declared as Highest among devas and Agni the lowest in another Shruti (agnirdevanam adhamah Vishnuh paramah). To evolve a scheme of monotheistic doctrine from a literature which abounds in such conflicting and bewildering statements would appear at first sight to be a formidable task. But a careful analysis illuminated by the torch of reasoning adduced by Sri Madhwacharya will be found to yield a consistent monotheistic doctrine.
DEMONSTRATION OF VlSHNU AS THE HIGHEST PRINCIPLE
Vishnu the Brahman
Sri Madhwacharya follows distinct lines of arguments in demonstrating the truth of this doctrine. The Brahmasutras are traditionally regarded as providing the necessary principles of interpretation of the Vedic passages and determination of their import. The first aphorism (sutra) of the Brahma sootras (athato Brahma jignasa) prescribes the enquiry (jignasa) of Brahman as the means of liberation from bondage. For a monotheistic doctrine nothing is more appropriate than demonstrating that the ‘Being’ comprehended by the word Brahma in this aphorism is no other than the monotheistic principle sought to be established. Sri Madhwacharya unhesitatingly takes this line of argument and argues out that Brahma in this aphorism means Vishnu – ‘brahmashabdascha vishnvaveva’ (B.S.B. p.2). The word Brahma in Vedantic literature refers to other entities also like the four-faced Brahma, the Vedas, and individual souls (brihajatijivakamalasanasadbarasishuu (B.S.B.p.5)). The etymological meaning of Brahma derived from the root ’brih’ (i.e., big) is that which is big in every sense i.e., that which is perfect. Indeed, the Shruti brihantohyasmingunah says that Brahman is called Brahman because He is full of auspicious attributes i.e., Gunapurna, in answer to the question in the shruti ‘atha kasmath brahmetyachakshate' - why is he called Brahman? Now the word Brahma in the aphorism must refer to the Highest Being since a contemplation of the Highest Principle alone can lead to salvation. Again, in the present context the word Brahma obviously refers to that Being which has the sanction of the seers to whom the question of the Absolute alone matters most. In the Mahanarayanopanishad it is said that the great seers contemplate that Being alone who reposes on the waters, who is the progenitor of the mother of the Universe and who is the supporter of the gods as Brahman (ambhasya pare…yatah prasuta jagatah prasuti... yasmin deva...tadeva Brahma paramam kavinam). The Upanishad also declares that Being, as higher than the highest and bigger than the biggest and that there is nothing higher than that Being. Now the being who is famous in the Vedic literature as the reposer in the waters is Narayana, the consort of Lakshmi and the word Narayana etymologically means a being who has the waters as his abode (apo nara iti praktah apo vai narasunavah ayanam tasyatah purvam tena narayanosmyaham). In the same Upanishad He is mentioned as Narayana, the Mahajneya i.e., the highest principle to be known. In the Bhagavadgita Arjuna says that the great seers like Asita. Devala and others refer to Sri Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) as Parabrahman i.e. Brahman par excellence (param brahma param dhama ... asito devalo vyasah (Bh. G. 10 – 12)). Sri Madhwacharya adduces another argument in showing that the word Brahma in the aphorism refers to Vishnu alone. The Brahmasutras form the third and last part of the Mimamsashastras- the Purvamimamsa of Jaimini forming the first and the Daivimimamsa the second parts (mimamsa trividah prokta brahmi daivi cha karmiki (G.T. p.10)). The Daivimimamsa is attributed to the double authorship of two disciples of Sri Vyasa viz, Shesha and Paila. As a gesture of approval of the work Sri Vyasa is said to have composed the first and the last two aphorisms of the Daivimimamsa. Now the last two aphorisms read Savishnurahali (‘He is called Vishnu’) and Tam brahmetyachakshate’ (‘Him they refer to as Brahman’). It is interesting to note that Sri Vedantadeshika quotes these two sutras in addition to one more viz, ‘ante harau taddarshanat'. From this it is obvious that Brahman refers to Vishnu. In the Brahmasutras following immediately after, it is therefore only natural that the word Brahman in the very first aphorism refers to Vishnu alone.
The All-Creator
The second aphorism of the Brahmasutras - janmadyasya yatah - defines Brahman as that from which the origin, sustenance, destruction of the world and the like proceed.
An examination with regard to this characteristic of the Highest Being will reveal Vishnu as the only possessor of this characteristic. Although, Hiranyagarbha, Rudra and others are said to exist prior to creation, the words Hiranyagarbha, Rudra etc., in fact do not refer to them. The words primarily refer to Vishnu alone since amongst all others Vishnu alone possesses the characteristic of sarvanamata i.e., possessing all names. The Vishwakarmasuktha praises the glories of Him who alone possesses the name of all the gods (‘yo devanam namadha eka eva') and refers to Him as the Being having a lotus in His navel (ajasya nabhavarpitam yasmin vishwani bhuvanani tasthuh). Vishnu by His characteristic of having a lotus in His navel is famous as Padmanabha. The Skandapurana says that the Vedas declare Vishnu as the Being having a lotus in His navel (ajasya nabhaviti nabherabhut puskaram lokasharam Tasmai namo bhagavate ... Vishvnave ... ). The Being who exists before creation is Narayana alone and the words Hiranyagarbha, Rudra etc., are all merely other names of Narayana Himself. The Shruti 'vasudevo va idamagra asit na brahma na cha shankarah’ declares unequivocally that Vasudeva alone existed prior to creation and denies the existence of Brahma the four-faced and of Shankara. It might, however, be thought that there may be other Shrutis which declare Rudra and other Gods as having all names. Sri Madhwacharya says emphatically that such is not the case (na sarvanamatanyesam Srutavukthahi kutrachit (A.V.p.4)), since the shruti ‘yo devanam namadha eka eva’ says there is only one possessing all names.
The Defectless
In another line of argument Sri Madhwacharya postulates that the Being who is free from all blemishes is truly the Highest. If we examine the Vedic literature it will be found that Vishnu alone of all the Vedic deities, is free from all blemishes (nirdosha). The Highest Being must be necessarily independent, self-existing (sve mahimne pratistite), and perfect (purnamidam purnamadam (Bri. Up. 7-1-1)). In the whole Vedic literature no kind of taint such as being subject to the cycle of births and deaths, possessing incomplete happiness, possessing limited capacities, being originated from a higher principle or being non-existent (in some sense or other) during the great dissolution (mahipralaya) are to be found associated with Vishnu. All the other gods ‘cease to exist', as it were, during the great dissolution which is a clear indication of their dependence. All the gods and goddesses are created by Vishnu in some sense or other. Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu is also created (yatah prasuta jagatah prasuti (Nar. Up)), in the sense that the ‘will to create the world’ in her is occasioned by the volition of Vishnu and not of her own free will. It is however popularly said that the four-faced Brahma is the creator, Vishnu the preserver and Rudra the destroyer of the world. But creation, sustenance and destruction are truly Vishnu’s alone; Brahma and Rudra are merely instruments in His hands. In the Ambhrani Sookta, Sri Lakshmi declares her overlordship over Brahma and Rudra by saying that whomever she wants to create as Brahma and Rudra she does so and declares her progenitor as he Being (Narayana) who reposes in the water (yam kamaye tam tamugram krunomi.. tam brahmanam … mama yonirapsvantahsamudre (R.V.)) Rudra is said to have obtained his rank among the devas as Rudra by the grace of Vishnu (videhi rudro rudriyam (R.V.)). The Vishnu Sookta says that nobody ever born or ever will be born could or can aspire to reach the excellence of Vishnu. In the Brahmasutra it is conclusively demonstrated in the later chapters that everything in the universe, animate or inanimate, from Sri Lakshmi down to the smallest being is created in some sense or the other by Brahman (Vishnu) and owes its existence to His Grace.
The Giver of Moksha
Sri Madhwacharya in a third line of argument in demonstrating the Sarvottamatva (supremacy) of Vishnu postulates that the Being who confers Moksha (salvation) is truly the Highest. Sri Badarayana the author of Brahmasutras employs this principle in determining the import of some Vedic passages (tannishtasya mokshopadeshat (B.S.I.1.7)). The contemplation of Shiva is said to lead to shanti (peace) in one Shruti, while the contemplation of Sri Lakshmi is said to lead to amrutatva (immortality) in another shruti (jnatva shivam shantimatyantameti shriyam vasanamrutatvamayam). But the matter is settled once and for all in Purusha Sookta where it is said that the knowledge of Purusha inculcated in the suktha alone is calculated to lead to amrutatva and that there is no other way at all (tamevam vidwan amruta iha bhavati nanyah pantha ayanaya vidyate). The Purusha knowing whom, is the only way for salvation is none other than Vishnu. In Stanza ten of the sookta the Purusha is addressed as having two consorts Hri and Lakshmi which unequivocally points out that Purusha is Vishnu. The characteristics of the Purusha mentioned in the suktha such as possessing thousand (i.e., infinite) faces, eyes, and hands etc., are found in Sri Krishna when he presents his Vishwarupa to Arjuna (ananthabahoodaravakthranetram (Bh. G. 11-16)). The Puranas declared that the Being spoken in the Purusha sookta is Vishnu alone (sarvatah paurushe sukthe gunah Visnorudeeritah). Innumerable puranic statements can be found declaring Vishnu as the giver of salvation (Vishnurhi data mokshasya). Bhagavan Sri Krishna says ‘Knowing Me leads to salvation’. The abode of Sri Krishna is the land entering which one never returns (yad gatva na nivartante taddhama paramam mama (Bh. G. 15-6)). That this is the highest truth will be realized from the statement of Arjuna who says ‘I know what you say to be the absolute truth’. Sri Krishna calls Himself the Highest Being - the Paramatman (mattah parataram nanyat (Bh.G. 7-7)). He is declared to be the Purushottama in the Vedic literature (loke vede cha pratitah purushottamah (Bh. G.15-18)). Arjuna is convinced that this is no empty boast on the part of Sri Krishna and begs pardon of the Lord for his ignorance of His Greatness (see Bh. G. chapter 11).
His Immanence, Transcendence: Vishnu, the Gunapurna and Swatantra
Vishnu, the Highest Principle is both immanent and transcendent. His immanence is declared in the Shruti ‘purusha evedam sarvam’. All this is verily the Purusha and His transcendence in the Shruti ‘atyatistaddashangulam’. He transcends everything by a space of ten inches i.e., in an infinite degree (dasha means infinite ‘dasheti sarvamuddistham’ says Sri Madhwacharya (Ai. Bh. P.55)). Vishnu is Gunapurna i.e., full of infinite auspicious attributes. This is a fundamental aspect of Vishnu according to Sri Madhwacharya. The Acharya has shown that the purpose of the Brahmasutras is mainly to demonstrate this aspect of Vishnu. The word Brahma etymologically means full of attributes and the speculation of Brahman in this aspect is inculcated in the Brahmasutras. The demonstration of Vishnu as Gunapurna is effected in the Brahmasutras by showing that all words in their most primary sense denote Vishnu alone who possesses in the fullest measure the attributes denoted by the words. The word Indra ordinarily refers to the god of heaven (swarga). But Indra means a wealthy person. Vishnu the giver of all wealth to Indra surely must be called Indra in the fullest sense of the word. When the word Indra therefore refers to Vishnu, we know Him as the possessor of Infinite wealth. In this manner when different words denoting attributes in an infinite degree are attributed to Him, He becomes Gunapurna. Again, a person suffering misery is called 'dukhi’. Vishnu is also called 'dukhi’ since ‘dukha' (misery) of all is completely under the control of Vishnu. There is a principle of word meaning which says that when an entity owes its very existence to another, the latter is called by the name of the former (yadadhina yasya satta tattadityeva bhanyate). When the armies of a king win a battle, the king Is said to be victorious. Vishnu the eternal undisputed controller of all is therefore called by the names of all entitles He controls. Thus, all words refer to Him alone either as the controller or the possessor of an attribute in an infinite degree and He is therefore Gunapurna i.e., full of all auspicious attributes. The first adhyaya of the Brahmasutras is called samanvayadhyaya and as its very name implies all words are demonstrated to refer to Vishnu thus proving that He is Gunapurna.
In enumerating the metaphysical categories (tatvas) of existence Sri Madhwacharya classifies all existents as swatantra and aswatantra—the Independent and the dependent. Vishnu the Highest principle is Swatantra and all else aswatantra (swatantram aswatantrancha dvividham tatwamishyate (T.S.p.l)). The Shrutis speak of Him as one without a second - ‘ekamevadvitiyam’ referring to Him as the only Independent Being.
His Will:
Vishnu is immanent in all things animate and inanimate, and but for Him things would not be what they are. He sustains all things at all times and the very existence of things is dependent on His Will. Things eternal and non-eternal exist due to His Will and exist under His Control. He is immanent in them both as controller and sustainer and transcends them at the same time.
His Attributes:
His attributes are infinite in number and each attribute is in itself infinite both In content and extent. He is Ananda (joy or beatitude). Jnana (knowledge) and Satya (Existence par excellence or All Creator). Luminescence, Mercy, Generosity etc., all raised to the power of infinity. But His Ananda is different in quality and essence from the ananda of the individual soul and is therefore called vijateeya (of a different kind). Both are ananda because both have the characteristic of ananda viz, the feeling of comfort or convenience (anukula-vedaniyatva). But the essence of Ananda of Brahma is different from the essence of ananda of the individual soul. Again, each attribute like Ananda has infinite sub-attributes in itself or infinite modes like moda (happiness derived from sight), pramoda (happiness derived from enjoyment), priyam (happiness derived from hearing), ananda (happiness of self) and the like. Each of these sub-attributes is again infinite in extent and content. The attribute of Jnana (knowledge) has infinite modes in itself like vijnana, jnana, samjnana, prajnana and the like. His attributes and powers are innumerable and are His very nature - says the Shruti ‘parasya sakthihi vividhaiva shruyate swabhaviki jnanabalakriya cha’ (Svet.Up.6-8). Each attribute again can manifest itself as any other attribute. The attribute of anger towards Hiranyakashipu is also the attribute of infinite mercy towards Prahlada. Each attribute encompasses within itself all other infinite attributes. The characteristic of knowledge is to illumine and of happiness to feel elated. Now both these characteristics are found both in His knowledge and in His Anada. His attributes are identical with His Self as the Shruti ‘neha nanasti kinchana' (Katha.up.2-1) declares. He is identical with Himself, His Actions and His attributes. That His attributes are identical with His Self may be understood from the statement that His Knowledge is His avatar as Vedavyasa, His Hair is His avatar of Krishna, His Speech is His avatar of Parashurama, His Smell Is His avatar of Narasimha, His Eye is His avatar of Kapila and so on. The identity of attributes, actions and self of God is a special aspect of God's nature on which Sri Madhwacharya lays special emphasis in his works. The Acharya has shown how attributes and actions which are different in their concepts can be regarded as identical with God’s nature which is essentially eternal, in his famous work Anuvyakhyana (anityatvat kriyanantu kathamevaswaroopata…kriyasakthyatmana stitah…jnanam nityam kriya nityam.(A.V. p.11)).
His Achintyadbhuta Shakti (His Inconceivable Superpower)
He is again the Perfect Beauty and glorious in all His effulgence and colours. His infinite forms are soul stirring and soothing. He possesses attributes which are regarded ordinarily as opposed like big and small, manifest and unmanifest, light and heavy, known and unknown. He is smaller than the smallest and bigger than the biggest as declared by the shruti ‘anoraniyan mahato mahiyan’. The Shruti ‘gunah shrutah suviruddhascha deve santyashrutanaivatra sanka’ says that there are attributes in God which though ordinarily are opposites, however, also inhere in Brahman and there are attributes such as no one has ever heard of. The power by which such opposite attributes inhere is called Achintyadbhuta Shakti - a superpower it is impossible to conceive of, by us mortals a power which passeth all understanding. Again, attributes which are regarded as derogatory or inferior in others become dignified when ascribed to Him. Eating too much is an indication of bad manners or want of delicacy. But eating the whole world in one gulp during the great dissolution is a virtue In Brahman, the Great destroyer. Brahman is again Infinite and Perfect every inch of Him. His avatars or manifestations are as perfect as His original form (moolaroopa) and if you take one form out of another what remains is still as perfect as what is taken out (poornamadah poornamidam…poornasya poornamadaya poornamevavasishyate (Br.Up.)). His avatars are non-prakritic and are identical with Him in all respects. He is everywhere, always, and coexists with space and time. That, however, does not mean He is dependent on space and time. It is His will that space and time be the receptacles of everything in the universe and His pleasure that they may be so for Him as well. Brahman, space, and time are swagata (self-existing) by His pleasure and eternally dependent on Him (isho desascha kalascha swagata eva sarvada ishadhinam cha tannityam (A.V. p.28)). Although He exists everywhere always inside all things and outside all things. He is unaffected, uncontaminated by them. He is asanga (uncontaminated) as the shruti 'asangohyayam purushah' declares. He maintains all things as they appear in experience and but for Him things would not be what they are. Even what are ordinarily regarded as the 'nature of things (swabhava) are really dependent on His Will and exist because of His Will. He has willed that they be so and so and therefore they are so and so (dravyam karma cha kaalascha swabhavo jiva eva cha yadanugrahatah santi na santi yadupeksyaya (A.V. p.2)). He resides in all things, taking a form similar to them, possessing Himself the names of things and supporting their existence throughout. All activities or volitions in the world are motivated by Him and cannot be but for Him as the shruti ‘tena vina trinamapi na chalati’ - without Him not even a blade of grass can move - declares. He is the All-seer eternally vigilant and eternally active. The world of animate and inanimate beings is merely a tool in His Hands. To be active is His very nature, to create, to protect, to destroy the world are in His very nature (devasyesha kalascha swagata eva sarvada Ishadhinam cha tannityam (A.V. p.28)). He has nothing to profit by such ceaseless activity. He does not become imperfect if He does not create the world. All things owe their existence to Him; if man has no horns it is because He has willed it so. if space and time are receptables for all things it is because He has willed it so; if release from bondage is to be obtained after a prolonged process of sadhana it is because He has willed it so; if He creates the world from the beginningless Prakriti it is because He has willed it so. All things everywhere and always owe their existence to His eternal Will. He, the agamas declare, gives them their existence (satta) in the sense that His Will maintains all things as they are. Eternal things are eternal because of His Will even as non-eternal things are non-eternal because of His Will. That space and time are under His control can be realized from the fact that He can encompass big things in a small space (as in Vishwaroopa in the mouth of Sri Krishna) and small things can occupy a large space (as jivatman which is atomic in nature and yet can pervade a much greater space by His grace). He can speed up time or retard it if He so wills.
He is the Efficient cause of the universe, the material cause being the beginningless Prakriti. He is the great architect of the Universe, its hope, and its salvation.