Chapter 9 – Metaphysical Categories
Metaphysics is the science of reality and the metaphysics of any system of Philosophy draws its inspiration from its epistemology. The universe presented to us through our faculties of knowing consists of real things existing in diverse patterns of modes. These autonomous units of modes of existence, or things are called padarthas or categories. The padarthas are so many different monads or units of reality. A paratha is defined as an entity having the characteristic of being perceived in true knowledge- ‘prameyatvam padarthasya lakshanam'). The multifarious things of existence exist In the form of substances (dravya) like gold and clay, organisms like human beings and insects, qualities like colour and shape, actions like walking, running and the like. Since they are all perceived in true knowledge in our dally experience they are all entitled to be called padarthas. The padarthas are enumerated differently in the different systems of Indian Philosophy. According to the Jaina system the categories are seven-Jiva, A-Jiva, Asrava. Samvara. Nirjara, Bandha and Moksha. The Nyayavaisheshika school enumerates the padarthas or categories as seven in number viz, dravya. (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya (universal), samavaya (necessary relation), vishesha (individuality) and abhava (negation). According to Sri Madhwacharya the padrthas are ten in number. Sri Madhwacharya accepts some categories mentioned by other schools, rejects some and postulates some not mentioned by other schools, all on the basis of experience and as corollaries to his epistemological position. The enumeration of the categories according to the system of Sri Madhwacharya is undertaken in the Madhwasiddantasara of Padmanabhasuri. This work forms the basis of present chapter. The ten padarthas are (i) Dravya (ii) Guna (iii) Karma (iv) Samanya (v) Vishesha (vi) Vishishta (vli) Amshi (viii) Shakti (ix) Sadrushya and (x) Abhava. The Nyayavaisheshlka School however does not admit of the categories Vishishta, Amshi, Shakti and Sadrushya. The category called Samavaya (necessary relation) is not admitted by Sri Madhwacharya.
9.1. DRAVYA: Dravya is defined as an entity capable of motion (dravantu dravana prapyam, (Bh.T.)) or an entity, which can be a material cause. A dravya Is a material cause in the sense that it can neither be transformed in the case of prakrti (promotional matter) nor manifested as in the case of individual souls or Brahman. The dravyas are twenty in number viz. (i) Paramatma or Brahman, (ii) Lakshmi the consort of Paramatma, (iii) Jiva, (iv) Avyaktakasha (space), (v) Prakrti, (vi) The three gunas – satva, rajas and tamas, (vii) Mahat, (viii) Ahamakara, (ix) Buddhi, (x) Manas, (xi) lndriya, (xii) Matra, (xiii) Bhuta, (xiv) Brahmanda, (xv) Avidya, (xvi) Varna, (xvii) Andhakara, (xviii) Vasana, (xix) Kala, and (xx) Pratibimba. The Nyayavaisheshikas accept only nine dravyas. But the dravyas like prakrti and the three gunas and the like have to be accepted on the authority of the scriptures.
(i) Paramatma: Paramatma is Vishnu the Creator, Sustainer, and destroyer of the Universe. He is all Knowledge and all words and sounds refer to Him. He is essentially different from the sentient and non-sentient beings. He Is independent and one without an equal. He has Infinite forms each form perfect in itself. His attributes, actions are identical with His self. He transcends space and time. He is full of infinite auspicious attributes (Gunapooma). Gunapoornatva is His characteristic (lakshana).
(ii) Lakshmi: Lakshmi is the consort of Lord Vishnu and dependent only on Him (mama yonirapsvantah samudre (Amb. Su.) – my progenitor reposes in the waters during dissolution). Being dependent only on Him is her characteristic (lakshana). She is eternally unbound as His consort and manifests herself in Infinite forms. She is His eternal companion completely absorbed with her love towards Him. The Shruti 'Hrischatelakshmischa patnau’ says Hri and Lakshmi are the two forms of the consort of Purusha. She like her consort has no material body. It pleases her Lord to regard her as His consort and by association with Him the advantage is all on her side. He. the perfect Lord has nothing to derive by His association with her. By His Grace she creates the whole universe and she is the mother of the Universe. She creates Brahma. Indra and the other gods exercising her overlordship over them (yam kamaye tam tamugram krinomi tam brahmanam (Amb. Su.)). She Is all pervading in space and time as her Lord Vishnu and Is therefore called samana- equal to Narayana in pervasion of space and time.
(iii) Jiva: The jiva Is the individual soul characterized by ignorance and beginningless bondage. Bondage is associate with the bhutas (beings) and such bondage is to be found from the four-faced Brahman down to the smallest. The jivas are infinite in number and have different capacities for knowledge and happiness. Brahma is the most superior among jivas followed by Shesha, Garuda, Rudra, Indra and the other gods and the lowest in the scale is called trunajiva, a soul like a blade of grass. The Jivas are infinite in number and belong to a variety of groups and are classed as mainly belonging to three classes, viz. Sattvic, Rajasic, and Tamasic. Of these three classes of jivas only the Sattvic souls are eligible to Moksha while the Rajasic souls are fated to eternal bondage. The Tamasic souls are fated to eternal perdition. These differences are due to their Intrinsic nature. A sattvic soul is intrinsically virtuous while a tamasic jiva is intrinsically wicked and all in the end get their deserts. All the Jivas are different from one another and from Brahman. The gradation in capacities persists even after release In the state of Mukthi.
(iv) Avyakrtakasha: Space is called Avyakrtakasha. Since it undergoes no change either during creation or during dissolution it is called Avyakrata (What is not transformed). Space or Avyakrtakasha is single, eternal and self-supporting (Swagata). That space is swagata i.e., self-supporting will be seen from the fact that we say ‘here is space’. In saying so we regard ‘here’ (space) as the support for space. In fact Sri Madhwacharya says that the three entities Ishwara, space and time are each self-supporting (swagata)- 'isho desascha kalascha swagata eva sarvada' (A.V.p.28) but the self-supporting attribute of space and time are dependent on His Will. He has willed that they be self-supporting and so they are self-supporting. Space has parts in the sense of having direction. If such an attribute or part like directions did not exist in space we could not move our hands avoiding obstacles. When we avoid obstacles and move our hands we are conscious of direction in space. Space as has already been explained is directly perceived by Sakshi. In all pieces of knowledge the spatial element is always present. The Shrutis speak of akasha as ‘anadirvayam akashah'- 'this akasha is beginningless' and 'atmanahakash sambhutah'- 'akasha was born from Atman’. The same entity cannot be said to be beginningless and to be born. Hence two kinds of akasha are to be admitted Viz. avyakrtakasha or space which is beginningless and bhutakasha which is an element among the well- known five elements. The space called avyakritakasha is called dik by the tarkikas. The word akasha means that which provides space or room. The fact that we move our hands in darkness points to our perception of space by our Sakshi. The bhutakasha is known from scriptures.
(v) Prakriti: Prakriti is primordial matter. It is the cause of everything except spirit and space. It is the direct or indirect material cause of the world of non-sentient matter. It is the direct material cause of time and the three gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas (sattvam rajah tama it prakritisambhavah (Bh.G. 14- 5). It is the indirect cause of Mahat and other later products. Because it is upadana or material cause it is regarded as a dravya. Prakrti is non-sentient (Jada). eternal and all perceiving. Prakrti is of many forms. In one form it is the material of what are called linga shareeras (subtle bodies) of individual souls in bondage. In another form prakrti transforms itself into the three gunas.
(vi) The three Gunas: Brahman, at the dawn of creation, created the three gunas called Sattva, Rajas and Tamas out of primordial matter or prakrti. These form the material cause of the latter elements in the series of creative evolution such as Mahat and Ahamkara. Each of these gunas viz, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas are intermixed with each other in different definite proportions. Sattva is unmixed with Rajas or Tamas but the latter are mixed with the other two. The pure Sattva forms the material cause of bodies, which released souls may take if they feel like doing so. Creation is effected through Rajas, sustenance through the Sattva part in Rajas and destruction through Tamas.
(vii) Mahat: Mahat is the immediate product or evolute of the gunatrayas. Only a part of the gunatrayas gets transformed into Mahat. The Mahat forms the body of four faced deity (Chaturmukha) Brahma.
(viii) Ahamkara : Ahamkara is the immediate evolute of the principle of Mahat. Only a part of Mahat transforms itself into Ahamkara principle . This tatwa (principle) is of three kinds viz, Vaikarika, Taijasa and Tamasa. The Ahamkara tatwa forms the body of deity Rudra.
(ix) Buddhi: Buddhi is of two kinds viz. tatwa and knowledge. The Buddhi tatwa or Vijnana tatwa as It sometimes called is a dravya while knowledge is not a dravya but a guna (attribute). Buddhi tatwa is the product of Mahat tatwa with Taijasa Ahamkara as its sustaining factor (upacaya).
(x) Manas: Manas is again of two kinds viz. tatwa and the Internal organ of cognition. The Manas tatwa is produced from Vaikarika Ahamkara. The internal organ called Manas is of eternal and of non- eternal types. The eternal type of Manas as internal organ is present in God. Lakshmi and all the jivas, and is an essential part of their being. The non-eternal type of Manas is the internal organ associated with the body of all the souls in bondage. The internal organ Manas is discriminated into few aspects viz, manas (proposing and disposing), buddhi (determination), ahamkara (imagining powers which are not existing), chitta (capacity to remember) and chetana (pervasion as cognizer).
(xi) Indriya: Indriya is also of two kinds viz, tatwa and instrument of knowledge. Each is of two types viz, jnanendriya and karmendriya. They are again of two types viz, eternal and non-eternal.
Now the Indriya of the tatwa type and non-eternal in nature in the two forms of jnanendriya and karmendriya is the product of Taijasa Ahamkara. The Indriya, which is the means of instrument of knowledge in its eternal type and of jnana, and Karma abides in God, Lakshmi and the jivas and is an essential part of their being. It is what is called Sakshi. The Indriya different from the tatwa and non-eternal in character and of jnana and Karma is to be found in all jivas In their embodied state. The Sakshi perceives directly itself and the internal organ Manas, the transformation in the space and time. The Sakshi through the external senses of perception perceives the external objects.
(xii) Matra: Matra is what is perceived by the senses of perception (miyante iti matra vishayah iti (G.B. p3). Matra is of two types viz, tatwa and quality. The tatwa type of Matra is produced out of Tamasa Ahamkara and is called pancha tanmatra. They arc shabda (sound), roopa (form), rasa (taste), gandha (smell) and sparsha (touch).
(xiii) Bhuta: The Bhutas are produced from Tamasa Ahamkara through the medium of the pancha tanmatras. The Bhutas (elements) are five in number viz, akasha (space), vayu (wind), tejas (fire), ap (water), and prithvi (earth). These are the well-known pancha bhutas (five basic elements of nature). They are again of two types viz, tatwa and different from tatwa. Akasha tatwa is produced from the tanmatra of shabda. Vayu is of two types viz, of the five forms of prana, apana, vyana, udana and samana and different from them. Again it is of two types eternal and non-eternal. Eternal vayu resides in Ishwara, Lakshmi and the non-eternal type and different from the tatwa resides in the bodies of all embodied jives. The Vayu of the tatwa is produced from the tanmatra called sparsha. Similar types occur in the other bhutas viz. tejas, ap, and prithvi.
(xiv) Brahmanda: The tatwa beginning from Prakrti down to Prithvi form the enclosures (avarana) of Brahmanda or world. The world (Brahmanda) with its enclosures may be regarded to constitute the Universe. The five elements (panchabhutas) viz, akasha, vayu, tejas, ap and prithvi of the non-tatwa type are inside the Brahmanda and created by Brahman in accordance with the shruti ‘atmanah akashah sambhutah'. Lord Vishnu created the Brahmanda out of the twenty-four tatwas. Then Vishnu entered the Brahmanda with the parts of the tatwas like Mahat in his stomach and lay reposed in the waters of Brahmanda. From his navel sprang up a lotus in which Brahma the four-faced was born. From Brahma the other gods were born.
(xv) Avidya: Avidya (Cosmic Ignorance). Cosmic ignorance is beginningless and which resides in the embodied souls in the subtle form is created in the gross form and it is of five kinds viz. moha. mahamoha, tamIsra, and hatamisa and tamas. It is again of four kinds viz, jivacchadika. Paramacchadika, shaivala and maya. The material cause of avidya is the tamas present in the five elements. The avidya contemplated here is not absence of knowledge but is of a positive character because it can produce effects (see Madhwasiddhanta Sara P. 56-58). Avidya or ajnana is of two types referred to as bhavarupa and abhavarupa. The bhavarupa avidya produces effects while the abhavarupa avidya cannot produce results. The former is positive In character and content. It is this positive type of ajnana or ignorance that screens the soul from God and from a complete knowledge of the self. The evidence for the positive type of avidya i.e.. bhavarupa avidya, is abducted from experience as when I say ‘I am ignorant’. The sense of ‘I am ignorant' is different from the sense of ‘I have no knowledge’. The latter expresses absence of knowledge while the former expresses an impediment or obstruction or screen against knowledge. The obstruction of knowledge is called bhavarupa avidya. The bhavarupa avidya, which obstructs the complete knowledge of self, called jivacchadika. which obstructs the knowledge of Brahman called paramacchadika. Shaivala is the bhavarupa avidya, which blinds the jiva to the truth of the nature of things and produces longings and desires. Maya is the bhavarupa avidya by means of which a magician can show us objects which in fact do not exist. The different kinds of avidya reside in the jivas only.
(xvi) Varna : Varna is a letter like aa. Varna is said to pervade all space and is eternal. The Varna is manifested by sound pronunciation.
(xvii) Andhakara : Andhakara is darkness. Its nature is to destroy light. Darkness is conceived of as a positive entity and not as mere absence of light. The fact that when in darkness we say there is darkness and do not say there is no light, is taken as proving the existence of darkness as a positive entity.
(xviii) Vasana: Vasana is the impression in the Manas out of which the dream world is created. These impressions are real and remain in the Manas as photographic images of experience during the waking state. The stuff of which dreams are made is Vasana and since dreams are made out of this stuff dreams are to be regarded as real. Just as the world of sensory experience Is made of the five elements, the world of dreams is made of Vasana and dreams are as real as the external world we experience in the waking state. Dream experience is true because it produces effects like happiness or misery and the happiness I derive in a dream is in no way different from the happiness I feel during the waking state.
(xix) Kala: Kala is time. It is the entity that enables us to differentiate between the old and the young. It has parts like Kshana. lava etc., (similar to seconds and minutes etc.). Time is eternal and all pervading. It is like space svagata (self-supporting). It is perceived directly by sakshi. Time is not a matter of inference because concomitance, which is necessary element in an inference, presupposes time. The parts of time like kshana and lava are regarded as having primordial matter as their material cause. Time is the receptacle for all things and the efficient cause of all things.
(xx) Pratibimba: Pratibimba means image. The characteristics of an image are - dependence on the original object and resemblance to it. The image in a lens or mirror depends on the object in the sense that if the object be not there, the image too cannot be. The Image is also similar to the object in some respects. The image in a mirror is regarded as unreal in some schools. The image in a plane mirror is made up of the parts of the mirror (such an image is called virtual in Physics), while the image in a lens (such as the real image in physics) is made of rays of light. In any case the image can be regarded as having an upadana karana (material cause) and is therefore a dravya. Pratibimba (image) may be eternal or non-etemal. All the individual souls from Lakshmi downwards are dependent on Brahman and possess intelligence in some measure and are therefore regarded as His Pratibimbas. He Is their Bimba. The images in mirrors are non-eternal pratibimbas.
9.2 GUNA : Guna is quality or attribute. Guna is an attribute inherent in a substance but cognizable as different from it. Examples of Gunas are form, taste, smell, touch, number, size, division, heavy, light and so on. In general all gunas are of two types viz. eternal and non-eternal. The eternal gunas or attributes pertain to God and the non-eternal to other beings sentient or non-sentient. God has forms of infinite colours, Krishna being dark, Vamana being white, Parashurama being of the colour of a burning cinder, Hayagriva being of the colour of the moon, Kapila like the sun and so on. Prakrti and gunatryas have white, blue, and red colours. Mahat tatwa has the colour of gold. Size Is of several kinds, big. medium, and small, Happiness, misery, desire, hatred, light, love or affection, bhakti or devotion, courage, beauty, generosity, knowledge and the like are among the numberless gunas.
9.3 KARMA: Karma ordinarily means action but it is defined here as direct or indirect cause of merit (punya) or demerit (papa). All actions directly or indirectly produce merit or demerit and even an action without purpose is a means of demerit from the religious point of view. A shruti says ‘na kuryannisphalam karma'- action without purpose should not be undertaken. Karma is of three kinds viz. vihita (what is prescribed as must be done like giving alms and praying), nishiddha (what is prescribed as not to be done like sinful actions) and udasina (indifferent or morally and spiritually harmless actions like lifting, walking, running etc.) Karma resides in intelligent beings viz. individual souls and also in non- sentient matter as in a falling stone. Karma in the case of Brahman is eternal and in the case of others non- eternal. Action as being perceived in true knowledge is to be regarded as a dravya.
9.4 SAMANYA Samanya means Universal. It Is perceived in all and in each. Cowness ie perceived in all cows and in any individual cow. Cowness does not appear apart from a cow but we can conceive of cow and cowness as two distinct entities. Existence or being (satta) characterizes all entities and is a samanya. The samanya called dravyatva characterizes all dravyas and the samanya ghatatva characterizes all ghatas. The samanya may be eternal or non-eternal. Jivatva is a universal of the etenal type and ghatatva is a universal of the non-eternal type.
9.5 VlSHESA: The concept of Vishesha is a special feature of Sri Madhwacharya’s metaphysics. Vishesha has been defined as bhedakaryakari i.e., that which performs the function ordinarily performed by difference. When I see a mango I perceive its size and also its colour. Now is the colour different from the mango? We cannot say that the colour is different from the mango because we do not perceive colour alone nor do we perceive the mango alone. We do not perceive the size alone either. Therefore we have to admit identification of colour and size with the mango. That is to say colour and size are also identical because both are identical with the mango. But when we speak of colour we do not refer to size and when we speak of size we do not refer to colour. We do differentiate between colour and size which are however identical. There is between colour and size a distinction without a difference. Now how is this possible? We therefore postulate the existence of an attribute called Vishesha in the mango that makes it possible for us to distinguish between colour and size, which are in reality identical with the mango. If colour and size were different we could differentiate between them. Even when they are not different we can differentiate between them by the help of the attribute called Vishesha. The Vishesha therefore performs the work of difference namely enabling us to differentiate. Such an attribute which performs the work of difference in enabling us to differentiate between two qualities or attributes even when there is no difference between them is called a Vishesha i.e., differentiating or particularizing agency. The concept of Vishesha is fundamental in this system. It is because of Vishesha that we can speak of Brahman as having different attributes. In point of fact the attributes of actions of Brahman are fundamentally and essentially identical with His Self, and we invoke the vishesha as the means of differentiating Brahman from His action and attributes. Vishesha are infinite in number and reside in all padarthas. They are eternal in eternal entities and non-eternal In non-eternal entities. Visheshatva can be conceived to reside in Vishesha and we need not invoke another Vishesha to account for their seeming difference. We conceive of Vishesha as Swanirwahaka i.e., having the capacity to differentiate itself from its attributes.
9.6 VlSlSTA : Visista is a qualified entity. A person with a cane is differentiated from the same person without a cane. The cane qualifies the person and the person so qualified with the cane is a visista. Visista may be eternal or non-eternal. Brahman with His attributes of all-knowledge is a visista of the eternal type. A person with a cane is a visista of the non-eternal type.
9.7 AMSHl: An Amshi is an entity, which has parts called amsha. The human body is the amshi of which the several organs are the parts. In the case of a piece of cloth the threads as the warp and woof form the material cause of the cloth. The cloth, however, has parts other than the threads. I can cover a part of my hands with a part of cloth. The parts form the amsha and the cloth having parts is the amshi. Experience reveals the amshi as the object of true knowledge and the amshi is therefore to be regarded as a padartha.
9.8 SHAKTI: Shakti means capacity. It Is conceived of as of four kinds viz. achintyashakti (capacity beyond human comprehension) residing in Brahman, adheyashakti (capacity due to induction like the 'power' conceived of in a consecrated image), sahajashakti (capacity which is super-sensory and which is calculated to be favourable for producing an effect) and padashakti (the capacity of words to possess meanings).
9.9 SADRUSHYA : Sadrushya is resemblance or similarity. The resemblance between two cows is conceived of as an attribute not residing in any cow but existing in its own right as a padartha perceived in true knowledge. When I see a cow now and another cow later, in the latter case I perceive not only a cow but also a similarity with the cow I saw earlier. Such a similarity does not reside in the former cow since it is not present now when I perceive similarity. If it cannot reside in the first cow it cannot reside In the second cow either and so It exists in its own right as perceived in true knowledge. Similarity is therefore to be reckoned as a separate or distinct padartha.
9.10 ABHAVA: Abhava is non-existence. We perceive non-existence in experience. When I place my watch on a table and later I do not see it there I perceive the absence of the watch. Being the object of my perception, the absence of the watch has a right to be regarded as a padartha. Abhava is that which is perceived as not existing in the very first perception. Abhava is said to be of three kinds viz. pragabhava (prior non-existence or pre-non-existence) pradhavamsabhava (post non-existence) and atyantabhava (absolute non-existence). The non-existence of a pot before being made is pragabhava. non-existence of a pot after it is broken is pradhavamsabhava. Absolute non-existence such as the horns of a man is atyantabhava. The thing of which non-existence is affirmed is called pratiyogi. In the case of pragabhava and pradhavamsabhava the pratiyogi is an existing real entity. When I say there is non-existence of a pot before its production or after its destruction the pratiyogi is pot. But the pratiyogi in atyantabhava cannot exist in reality. When I say there is non-existence of the barren woman’s son. the pratiyogi barren woman’s son does not exist as a reality at any time. Non-existence can be such a thing perceived in true knowledge and is therefore regarded as a padartha. For a more detailed description of the categories and the basis for their conception the reader is advised to refer the pages of Madhwasiddhantasara.