The granular hypothesis [1] is the main premise of my new model of the universe – a complete set of principles and explanations that can help decipher the secrets of our universe while showing exactly how it evolved and expanded over time. As the Prime Theory already stated [1], the evolution of the universe and the evolution of space are identical things: space and its characteristics are entirely responsible for the emergence of matter, for all its transformations, as well as for all the interactions exerted by different fields – actually known as "the laws of physics". Inevitably, two very important questions will come up right away:
Q1. Where is space coming from?
Q2. Are the laws of physics universal, valid anywhere in space and time during the evolution of the universe?
The answers to both questions require a clearer definition of the concept of time. Is this physical quantity a sort of abstract quantity, unrelated to concrete matter, flowing at a constant speed and in a single direction - from the past to the future? Or is this an internal characteristic of matter, a result of its intrinsic kinetics and its specific constants, which have no meaning if seen separately? All the tests and experiments have proven so far an inextricable link between time and matter; furthermore, the rate at which time passes depends on the speed of matter (of physical bodies) and on its gravitational field (a term that is commonly used is "spacetime warping", but Prime Theory [1] had introduced the expression "uneven distribution of granular fluxes"). Things went even further in Gravity [3], where time – in all its valences and at any dimensional scale – was directly associated with the motion of matter observed from an absolute frame of reference (AFR). And we mean by matter any compact granular formation or structure that is relatively stable – from an elementary particle to the largest celestial bodies.
Answer 1. Basically, the spatial fluid causes and maintains, through its granular fluxes, the stability of any material structure, at any scale. The emergence of this granular fluid effectively coincides with the emergence of space, and several variants of the origin of space have already been introduced in [1] and [3]. This granular fluid will then pass through several stages of self- organization, while the empty space (which is presumed to have a boundary) it occupies is continuously expanded. This leads to a point where all elementary particles are created. After a cooling period, these particles combine and form new structures: the Hydrogen and Helium atoms; moreover, the atoms are immediately emitting their first photons, omnidirectionally, which subsequently decouple from the structured matter and constitute the well-known Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR). At this moment, a set of additional laws must be issued to include those complex new structures the elementary particles (atoms and molecules) will build – The Laws of Physics. However, the simple laws of granular motion [1] are the fundamental rules that underlie any law of physics, at both micro and macroscopic levels. They are also the basis of the global relativism of the universe, i.e. they ensure the invariance of the laws of physics to the position in the universe, to time and uniform motion, but they also give us the general laws of conservation of energy and momentum; moreover, all these "principles of operation" must be formulated adequately, to work in any epoch of our dynamic and expanding universe!
Answer 2. In addition to the Prime Theory's [1] postulates and laws related to the granular matter, one more principle will be introduced now, the "Universal Postulate" (UP); it will ensure that any law applicable to the structured matter will be invariant throughout the universe:
The laws of physics are invariant to the changes in spatial density. Clarifications:
- the postulate covers a wide range of granular densities, starting from the high level at the time of CMBR emission to today's level, at least, and assumes that all fundamental characteristics of matter and fields do vary simultaneously and linearly. This statement is based on a simple logical inference: as long as the fields and the constituents of matter have a common origin, i.e. the granular fluxes, it seems normal that all fundamental physical quantities change simultaneously and evenly when the intensity of these fluxes changes.
- if the granular density changes uniformly in a region of local absolute, the state of that region will not change. However, if the changes cause some density gradients, the laws of physics and the units of measurement must be adapted accordingly.
- the granular density is proportional to the intensity of local granular fluxes (if they are uniform and omnidirectional).
- the space regions where matter is very dense (massive celestial bodies) feature a significant unevenness of the local fluxes (commonly known as "gravity" or "curvature of space-time"); for these regions, the laws of physics must be adapted accordingly (similar to Einstein's General Relativity approach, but based on the new paradigm).
- These multiple invariances of the physical laws (to position, time, uniform motion, and granular density) completes the global relativism that characterizes our universe and helps us decipher all of its cosmic-scale secrets, being supported by today's very precise astronomical measurements.
- with all this invariance of the laws of physics, the units of measurement cannot remain unchanged in all cases! The physical quantities are keeping their known correlations (force will be mass times acceleration anywhere in the universe), but the units of measurement will practically become variables if seen from an absolute and comparative perspective. Let's take, for example, the speed of light, a physical quantity that has been declared a universal constant; its absolute value, if viewed comparatively, will differ in different places and at different times throughout the universe! Measured with the same device, its value could be 3x108 m/s anywhere within our universe, but its absolute value may differ significantly (and this thing cannot be perceived directly due to the global relativism; also, the changes are relevant only between very distant cosmic zones). Similarly, two identical objects of mass 1kg, one on Earth and one on another planet, could have different absolute masses (the paradox of generalized relativism deepens when those two masses cannot be compared directly!). Anyway, if we bring the objects together, the masses will become identical – since the matter they are made of is self-adjusting to the local spatial density. In addition, a standard mass of 1kg placed in a rocket traveling at relativistic speeds has a greater absolute mass, but any local measurement cannot detect the difference! A comparative look over some essentially relative measures and the universal laws governing the physical quantities can be taken, however, using several special techniques; for example, we may observe different galaxies and analyze the spectrum of light that comes from them.
All these premises helped me create a complete model for our universe (which will include its genesis and evolution) and formulate coherent explanations for every major event in its history; all these rational explanations and interpretations are based on a minimum set of principles and postulates, addressing many exotic notions and less coherent theories introduced by astrophysics - such as the cosmic inflation [7] and dark matter/energy.
2.2 An alternative to the Big Bang theory
The new distributed model of our universe's birth was described at length in Cap 1.6 of [3]; this model, along with some additional clarifications, presumes the existence of a finite amount of special, primordial matter (called essence) and its irreversible granularization at a given moment called time zero [2]. We are talking about a compressed volume of superfluid essence that is enclosed in a kind of external, indefinable environment; the essence is completely separate from this external medium - which may as well be a superfluid material. The granularization of this primordial matter could be explained in several ways, for example by the resonance phenomenon caused by mechanical waves or by a change in the pressure exerted by the external medium. Whatever the cause of these fluctuations, at least a region of perfectly empty space appeared somewhere in its volume at time zero; that void, regarded as a region of negative pressure, has triggered a chain reaction-type process of "vaporization" in which the essence exposed to the empty spaces turns into granules. The process continued until all the essence became granularized.
Given the super-fluidity of the primordial essence, all detached "drops" already have the smallest possible size or will split very quickly to that size as a result of collisions; whatever the birth process would have been, the granules have gained a maximum absolute speed in the end and the total energy of the system is conserved (potential plus kinetic). When the whole mass of essence is "vaporized" and the granular fluid filled the newly created space, the pressure exerted upon the external membrane reaches a maximum value; consequently, the spatial bubble begins to expand at a very high speed, close to the absolute limit C. There is something to be noted, a particularity of my model: the collisions between granules and the external membrane cause the granular reflection process and, consequently, the continuous homogenization of the spatial fluid. These things are similar to the vacuum evaporation of a liquid in a closed chamber. If we assume that the chamber walls are infinitely elastic, the next phase (so-called cosmic inflation) will be easily understood: we are dealing with a fixed amount of granular fluid enclosed within a finite empty space that is continuously expanding. The granular fluid is directly affected by expansion, it will undergo a continuous decrease in density (its total number of granules is constant - Fundamental granular postulate #2 [1]). This expansion (two stages) will be analyzed further in greater detail to determine how it leads to a self-structuring process within the granular fluid.
However, why is this model better than the Big Bang theory and the current version of cosmological inflation? And which contradictions does it actually eliminate?
- First, it eliminates the need for that presumed singularity, an infinitesimal point of extreme temperature and extreme concentration of energy (!).
- All these simple assumptions also allow us to develop a new theory for gravitation, in which the gravitational granular fluxes constitute the source and the propagation medium for all the other fields.
- The general relativity and quantum mechanics are now reconciled, they both describe the "working mechanism" of our universe and reveal the common denominator of the laws of physics, namely the granular mechanics.
- Cosmic inflation is removed from the mechanism that shaped the early universe (anyway, it does not explain how the huge amount of "energy" stored by singularity has evenly spread over higher and higher distances during expansion);
- The hypothetical superluminal speed of the initial expansion may be explained (the radius of the primordial space bubble could increase at any speed below C in my model) if we see these things in absolute terms, from the emergent universe's rest frame (check the granular postulates [1]).
- We have now correctly defined the concept of energy, we now know where the energy comes from and what its form was during this period. The granular motion is completely chaotic, so that the granules move in all possible directions and thus "fill" any new region of empty space in no time. The granular density was really huge at first (it all practically started from one granule next to another), but decreases quite quickly over time. Consequently, the probability of multi-granular collisions also gradually decreases, while the first directional granular fluxes [1] are starting to flow. At the same time, granular formations with short lifespans emerge, move chaotically, and then disappear (they were unstable). Subsequently, when the granular density reaches a certain threshold value, the directional fluxes become dominant and "push" some compact granular formations (now with longer lifespans) towards each other. As the density gradients are still high and can curve most granular fluxes, the emergence of many pseudo-stable rotating groups is imminent; this is actually the granular process that has built the first elementary particles, the quarks.
- A plausible hypothesis can now be formulated on how the first supermassive black holes have been formed. Let's assume the existence of a large mass of essence (in granular or compact form) somewhere in the early universe. The very intense fluxes that hit on the surface of this embryonic black hole will create the so-called "gravity"; all nearby particles will be pushed by these gravitational forces directly towards the embryo, being incorporated immediately. It is obvious that the mass of this black hole embryo will increase rapidly and, therefore, more granular material and particles will be attracted to it. In my opinion, the accretion of dense granular fluxes (which are curved in the vicinity of black hole embryos, pass their "event horizon" and then are incorporated into their body) is the main mechanism by which their mass grows so quickly in this short period – speaking, obviously, on a cosmic scale of durations (accretion will be balanced later by granular evaporation). The compact internal layers of the BH embryo rotate rapidly, even relativistically in some cases, and this creates a centrifugal force that is continuously balanced by the external granular pressure. Embryos of this kind could reach millions or even billions of solar masses, being evenly distributed throughout the granular fluid (due to the specific intensity of its fluxes); also, their translation speed is very small in regard to the AFR. Anyway, the mass of these types of BHs can be seen in the usual sense - as they all are made up of compacted granular layers. Known today as super massive black holes (SMBH), they play a particularly important role in the evolution of the universe, being in fact those stars around which the future galaxies are to be built (i.e. those cosmic bodies that can produce enough "pull" to ensure the galactic cohesion). The primordial gases are attracted by SMBH, increase in density, and start to rotate while their angular momentum is conserved; over time, the process of accretion and the collapse of these vortexes trigger the ignition – and this is the moment when the very first stars were just born. Now, as the attraction is exerted at a stellar level, the newly formed stars began their revolution around the central BH on orbits where the pull balances out the centrifugal forces. This is the simplified mechanism that shows how a protogalaxy is built, and now it's very easy to observe the decisive role of the central SMBH in powering the whole process.
- As a result of the self-uniformization property of granular fluids, space cannot have any curvature, it is flat and does keep itself this way – although we presumed it has an outer boundary of spherical shape. Moreover, we may say that any point is continuously crossed by omnidirectional fluxes of equal intensity, and this makes space homogeneous and isotropic. The initial unevenness of its density (due to the combination of some initial waves) has led, most likely during this stage, to the emergence of SMBH in those particular, almost equally spaced places. These BHs are stationary stars, no additional forces are exerted on them while space expands and their initial linear momentum, if any, will remain almost unchanged. However, the reciprocal gravitational pull of SMBHs can change their speed over time and cause the formation of certain local groups, clusters, or filaments.
The duration of this initial stage (considered to last until the CMBR was emitted) is estimated by the standard cosmological model of current physics at about 400,000 years; however, given the linear expansion of space presumed in my model, this duration could be significantly longer.
Whatever the actual duration of Stage I would be (see the upper part of Figure 19), its timeline includes these important moments:
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