construct system.
The Dichotomy corollary - "A person's construction system is
composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs".
('Dichotomous' in this sense means divided and potentially
opposing and contradictory.)
The Range corollary - "A construct is convenient for the
anticipation of a finite range of events only". Some constructs are
applicable to certain things and not others e.g., a car may be 'fast,
sporty and sexy' but an apple may not be.
The Modulation corollary - "The variation in a person's
construction system is limited by the permeability of the
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constructs within whose range of convenience the variants lie".
By this I understand that our construct system is only as flexible
as we allow it to be. If our constructs are 'open to suggestion'
then so will we.
The Fragmentation corollary - "A person may successively
employ a variety of construction systems which are inferentially
incompatible with each other". In other words we can hold
contradictory constructs at the same time.
Constructs in use
Constructs form the building blocks of our 'personality' and as
such come in various shapes and sizes. From the Organisation
corollary it follows that some constructs are more important
than others. The most important constructs are those which are
'core' to our sense of being. These are very resistant to change
and include things like moral code, religious beliefs etc. and
cause significant psychological impact if they are threatened in
any way. The other constructs are called 'peripheral' constructs
and a change to them does not have the same impact. It also
follows that some constructs will actually subsume other
constructs as we move up the hierarchy.
Categories of constructs come in three types. There are 'pre-
emptive' constructs, these are constructs which are applied in an
all or nothing way. If this is a ball then it is nothing else but a ball
- very black and white type of thinking. The second type is
'constellatory' constructs. These constructs are the stereotyping
constructs - if this is a ball then it must be round, made of leather
and used in football matches. Constructs in this category bring a
lot of ancillary baggage with them (be it right or wrong). The last
type of construct category is 'propositional'. This one carries no
implications or additional labels and is the most open form of
construct. It should be noted that constructs do not have to have
'words' attached to them. We can, and do, have constructs which
were either formed before we could speak or which has a non
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verbal symbol identifying it. Something like the 'gut feeling' or 'it
feels right' would be a non verbal construct. Kelly originally
called these 'preverbal' constructs, but in line with others
(notably Tom Ravenette 1997) I prefer the term non verbal.
Constructs, themselves, can be either Loose or Tight. A loose
construct is one which may or may not lead to the same
behaviour every time. Obviously this can make life difficult for
others as they will be unable to predict the construer's actions
consistently. A tight construct on the other hand always leads to
the same behaviour. These people are those with regular habits
and firmly held views. Our creativity is helped by moving from
loose to tight constructs. We start off with loose constructs,
trying things out for size, seeing what works and what doesn't, as
we move towards the new we tighten up our construing,
narrowing down our experimentation and so we begin making
clearer associations and developing more clearly the 'new'. One
way of loosening our constructs is via play and imagination. By
using play as an experiment we can (safely) try out new things.
The CPC cycle directs our method of choosing. The CPC cycle
consists of Circumspection, Pre-emption and Control. This is
basically a form of 'Review, Plan, Do'. Initially we review the
alternatives open to us (circumspection), narrow down the
choice to one and devise a plan of action (pre-empt), finally you
exercise control and do something. The cycle continues as every
action leads to both a review of the success of that action as well
as opening new choices.
One of the criticisms levelled at Personal Construct Psychology
(unfairly in my view) is that it does not deal with emotions. This
myth has been effectively address by others (e.g. Fransella 1995,
McCoy 1977). Kelly uses different terms to deal with emotions.
He sees emotions as transitional stages. For example threat is
defined as 'the awareness of an imminent comprehensive change
in one's core structure', fear is an incidental change in one's core
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constructs. One example of threat can be seen in the way which
people of different belief systems are treated by the dominant
religion - the persecution of the Cathars during the middle ages
because they threatened the societal structure. One feels guilt
when one has done something which is contrary to ones core
constructs. Someone who sees themselves as 'an honest upright
citizen' would feel guilt if caught in some dishonest act (even
unwittingly). Happiness and joy are seen as support to
peripheral and core constructs. Think about how happy you feel
when you do something right or are complimented on
something.
Tools and techniques
Personal Construct Psychology has a wide variety of tools and
techniques at its disposal. Probably the most widely used is the
Repertory Grid. This is a method of eliciting constructs by asking
participants to compare three elements (objects, things, etc.,)
and state how two are similar and different from the third.
Answers are recorded in a matrix, which can then be analysed to
produce a construct map. This has been used for research into a
wide range of issues from business problems to
psychotherapeutic interventions (some examples of the latter
can be found in various chapters within this book). The Rep Grid
(as it is known) has a wide following and can be used without
any other PCP theory (and has been!). There are many variations
of Rep Grids including those looking at resistance to change as
well as implications grids and problem solving (for a more
comprehensive review of grids I would suggest Beail 1985,
Fransella and Bannister 1997, Stewart & Stewart 1981).
The Rep Grid can be compared to a 'hard measure', eliciting, as it
does, quantifiable data. There are, however a lot of softer, more
'touchy feely' construct elicitation techniques available. One of
the more popular is the 'Self Characterisation'. In this the client
has to write a character sketch of themselves in the third person
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and from a sympathetic viewpoint. This can then be assessed for
recurring themes and constructs, these can be discussed with the
individual concerned.
Once constructs have been elicited their hierarchy and
interlinking can be found by 'laddering' and 'pyramiding'. The
former takes one upwards towards the highest core constructs
whilst the latter provides a detailed map of a person's lower
level construct map in any particular area. By asking questions
like "which is more important a or b?" and then asking 'why?'
questions one can ladder quite quickly and easily.
Pyramiding, on the other hand, requires questions like "what
kind of person does y?", "How does that/they differ from x?", this
process allows the client to narrow down their definitions and
arrive at the lower level constructs. This exercise does require a
reasonable sized piece of paper to record all the answers and
provide a sensible construct map.
One powerful tool for understanding why people are not willing
to change is the ABC technique (Tschudi 1977). Here A is the
desired change with constructs B1 and B2 elicited. B1 being the
disadvantages about the present state and B2 the advantages
about moving to the new state. However it is possible (if not
probable) that the current situation has some advantages which
may outweigh the disadvantages. Therefore C1 are constructs
which show the negative side of moving whilst C2 are the
positive aspects of staying the same. But, by looking at the pay-
offs for not changing we can identify the barriers and put
measures in place to overcome them (if necessary).
Kelly also proposed a form of dramatherapy for use with clients.
In his version, which he called 'Fixed Role Therapy', in
conjunction with the client he drew up a new persona (including
a new name and history) and encouraged the client to act as if
they were this new person. This allowed the client to 'try out'
new ways of looking at the world in a safe environment (if it
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didn't work they just became themselves again). Hypnotherapy
has also been used to loosen (and tighten) constructs.
personal construct theory - conclusion
I hope that this brief introduction to Personal Construct
Psychology has shown some of the breadth and depth of PCP. Far
from being a static, restrictive psychology that only perceives
people as having finished growing at the end of childhood or
merely reacting to external stimulation, it is an extremely
liberating and eclectic psychology. Ownership of one's future is
placed in the hands of the individual concerned.
Personal Construct Psychology theory references
Balnaves M. & Caputi P., 1993, Corporate Constructs; To what
Extent are Personal Constructs Personal?, International Journal
of Personal Construct Psychology, 6, 2 p119 - 138
Beail N. (ed), 1985, Repertory Grid technique and Personal
Constructs, Croom Helm
Dallos R. (1991), Family Belief Systems, Therapy and Change,
Open University Press, Milton Keynes
Fransella F. (1995), George Kelly, Sage, London
Fransella F. and Bannister D. (1977), A Manual for Repertory
Grid Technique, Academic Press, London
Kalekin-Fishman D. & Walker B. (eds) 1996, The Construction of
Group Realities: Culture, Society, and Personal Construct Theory,
Krieger, Malabar
Kelly G.A. (1955/1991), The Psychology of Personal Constructs,
Routledge, London
McCoy M. M. (1977), A Reconstruction of Emotion, in Bannister D
(ed), Issues and Approaches in Personal Construct Theory,
Academic Press, London
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Procter H. (1981), Family Construct Psychology, in Walrond-
Skinner S (ed), Family Therapy and Approaches, Routledge and
Kegan Paul, London
Ravenette T (1977), Selected papers: Personal construct
Psychology and the practice of an Educational psychologist,
EPCA Publications, Farnborough
Stewart V. & Stewart A. (1981), Business Applications of
Repertory Grid Technique, McGraw Hill,
Tschudi F. (1977), Loaded and Honest Questions, in Bannister D
(ed), New Perspectives in Personal Construct Theory, Academic
Press, London
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4.14 RELAPSE PREVENTION
Relapse is a common experience when people change habits.
Relapse Prevention is about revealing and resolving those
issues that has been sabotaging your progress or recovery
process. Relapse can encompass behavior or drug addiction.
After changin one habit or recovering from one addiction, people
are at risk to become cross addicted or dually addicted to sex,
gambling, work, caffeine, food, you name it. We call this
changing seats on the titanic.
Or they recovery become plagued with depression or anxiety.
The true goal of going to a change process or recovering from a
bad attitude, habit or addiction, is to be comfortable in your
own skin, living life peacefully. Relapse Prevention is about
assisting the coachee in revealing and resolving those issues
that drove them to the wrong choices. Relapse prevention will
give them the freedom from bondage to live peacefully in their
own skin.
Relapse Prevention Coaching includes:
False Beliefs – Research evidence indicates that major
predictors of relapse risk are belief systems consistent with
negative models (‘I’m too weak to change’), and the absence
of coping skills.
What you do comes out of your beliefs about yourself, others
and God. In order to have a new life, not just a change of
destructive behavior, you must examine your current belief
systems.
Identity - Begin to identify and detach from unhealthy things
you've put your faith in and used to cope with life. You will
learn how these things have under-mind your attempts at
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success. You will discover areas of false identity that are
based on false gods or idols, such as alcohol/drugs, food, sex,
money, beauty, work, anger, judgment, etc.
Life-Management Skills – You will begin to understand the
addictive brain and gain life-management skills for coping
with the emotions that contribute to relapse.
Dead Ends – You begin to learn and understand how your
subconscious thoughts, feelings and behaviors have
contributed to your relapse.
Deja-Vu – You will begin to see how double binds (damned if
you do and damned if you don't) have kept you from making
the right choices for recovery.
Accountability – You will create a personal support and
accountability team for your balanced recovery plan.
Exodus - Through prayer and forgiveness, you will resolve
past hurts and mistakes, empowering you to begin to walk
into a new life of full recovery. This process deals with
acceptance of a new life and release of the guilt and shame
associated with the old addictive/compulsive behaviors.
The following strategies are useful in preventing and managing
relapse:
- enhance commitment to change (e.g. use motivational
interviewing)
- identify high-risk situations (e.g. What situations
- have been associated with relapse in the past? When is it
most difficult for coachee to keep to the agreements made?)
- teach coping skills (e.g. problem solving; social skills; self-
management skills; selfmonitoring, …)
- develop strategies that can be part of a relapse drill
- what should the coachee do in the event of a lapse occurring?
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- where can they get support?
- what role can friends/family provide?
- How soon should the coachee make an appointment to come
back to you?
Source:
Tammy Hardin -
http://emotionalandaddictionrecovery.com/relapse-prevention-
coaching
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4.15 BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming
http://www.businessballs.com/kaleidoscopebrainstorming.htm
Brainstorming technique for problem-solving, team-building and
creative process
Brainstorming with a group of people is a powerful technique.
Brainstorming creates new ideas, solves problems, motivates
and develops teams. Brainstorming motivates because it
involves members of a team in bigger management issues, and it
gets a team working together. However, brainstorming is not
simply a random activity. Brainstorming needs to be structured
and it follows brainstorming rules. The brainstorming process is
described below, for which you will need a flip-chart or
alternative. This is crucial as Brainstorming needs to involve the
team, which means that everyone must be able to see what's
happening. Brainstorming places a significant burden on the
facilitator to manage the process, people's involvement and
sensitivities, and then to manage the follow up actions. Use
Brainstorming well and you will see excellent results in
improving the organization, performance, and developing the
team.
N.B. There has been some discussion in recent years - much of it
plainly daft - that the term 'brainstorming' might be 'political
incorrect' by virtue of possible perceived reference to brain-
related health issues. It was suggested by some that the
alternative, but less than catchy 'thought-showers' should be
used instead, which presumably was not considered to be
offensive to raindrops (this is serious…). Happily recent research
among relevant groups has dispelled this non-pc notion, and we
can continue to use the brainstorming expression without fear of
ending up in the law courts…
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The Brainstorming process
1. Define and agree the objective.
2. Brainstorm ideas and suggestions having agreed a time limit.
3. Categorise/condense/combine/refine.
4. Assess/analyse effects or results.
5. Prioritise options/rank list as appropriate.
6. Agree action and timescale.
7. Control and monitor follow-up.
The Brainstorming Phases Explained
1. Orientation
Define the problem to be studied for the participants, clarify the
rules of the game.
2. Preparation
Gather data and information necessary to approach the problem
in an efficient manner.
3. Warm-up
Carry -out the exercise: redefine a problem different from the
one to be studied, experiment with it for a few minutes.
4. Production of ideas
Generate the maximum of ideas without prior judgement –
always ask “what else” - quantity of ideas is quality - no limits –
no criticise - modify other’s ideas to produce new ones.
5. Incubation
Let the subconscious work.
6. Syntheses
Gather the ideas generated - analyse them - work with logical
thinking.
7. Evaluation
Evaluate the ideas gathered and analysed - develop and combine
them before proceeding to put them in practice.
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Source: European Commission, Innovation Management
Techniques in Operation, European Commission, DG XIII,
Luxembourg, 1998.
In other words ….
Plan and agree the brainstorming aim
Ensure everyone participating in the brainstorm session
understands and agrees the aim of the session (eg, to formulate a
new job description for a customer services clerk; to formulate a
series of new promotional activities for the next trading year; to
suggest ways of improving cooperation between the sales and
service departments; to identify costs saving opportunities that
will not reduce performance or morale, etc). Keep the
brainstorming objective simple. Allocate a time limit. This will
enable you to keep the random brainstorming activity under
control and on track.
Manage the actual brainstorming activity
Brainstorming enables people to suggest ideas at random. Your
job as facilitator is to encourage everyone to participate, to
dismiss nothing, and to prevent others from pouring scorn on
the wilder suggestions (some of the best ideas are initially the
daftest ones - added to which people won't participate if their
suggestions are criticised). During the random collection of ideas
the facilitator must record every suggestion on the flip-chart. Use
Blu-Tack or sticky tape to hang the sheets around the walls. At
the end of the time limit or when ideas have been exhausted, use
different coloured pens to categorise, group, connect and link the
random ideas. Condense and refine the ideas by making new
headings or lists. You can diplomatically combine or include the
weaker ideas within other themes to avoid dismissing or
rejecting contributions (remember brainstorming is about team
building and motivation too - you don't want it to have the
reverse effect on some people). With the group, assess, evaluate
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and analyse the effects and validity of the ideas or the list.
Develop and prioritise the ideas into a more finished list or set of
actions or options.
Implement the actions agreed from the brainstorming
Agree what the next actions will be. Agree a timescale, who's
responsible. After the session circulate notes, monitor and give
feedback. It's crucial to develop a clear and positive outcome, so
that people feel their effort and contribution was worthwhile.
When people see that their efforts have resulted in action and
change, they will be motivated and keen to help again.
Personal brainstorming
For creativity, planning, presentations, decision-making,
and organizing your ideas
Personal brainstorming - just by yourself - is very useful for the
start of any new project, especially if you can be prone to put
things off until tomorrow.
Planning a new venture, a presentation, or any new initiative, is
generally much easier if you begin simply by thinking of ideas -
in no particular order or structure - and jotting them down on a
sheet of paper or in a notebook. Basically this is personal
brainstorming, and it can follow the same process as described
above for groups, except that it's just you doing it.
Sometimes it's very difficult to begin planning something new -
because you don't know where and how to start. Brainstoming is
a great way to begin. The method also generates lots of
possibilities which you might otherwise miss by getting into
detailed structured planning too early.
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A really useful tool for personal brainstorming - and note-taking
generally - is the wonderful Bic 4-colour ballpen.
The pen enables you quickly to switch colours between red, blue,
black and green, without having to walk around with a pocket-
full of biros.
Using different colours in your creative